John J. Wilson, Acting Administrator    FACT SHEET #12 .
April 1994

GANGS
James C. Howell, Ph.D.

[This fact sheet was prepared in conjunction with the author's review of
the gang literature, as part of an Office of Juvenile Justice and
Delinquency Prevention assessment undertaken to assist OJJDP program
planning in the gangs area.]

WHAT IS A GANG?

There is no accepted standard definition. State and local jurisdictions tend
to develop their own. The following criteria have been widely used in
research: 1) formal organization structure (not a syndicate), 2) identifiable
leadership, 3) identified with a territory, 4) recurrent interaction, and 5)
engaging in serious or violent behavior. These criteria are increasingly
used to distinguish gangs from other law-violating youth groups and other
collective youth groups. Unlike adult crime, most juvenile delinquency is
committed in groups.

HOW MANY GANGS ARE THERE IN AMERICA?

As there is no national reporting system, precise information is
unavailable--only estimates based on irregular surveys. The most recent
estimate--for 1991--is 4,881 gangs with 249,324 members, based on
Curry's (1993) law enforcement survey.

WHAT PROPORTION OF SERIOUS AND VIOLENT CRIME IS 
ATTRIBUTABLE TO GANGS?

Relevant national data are unavailable. Curry's survey of police
departments revealed that police records on gang incidents could not
generate the necessary data to distinguish reported gang crimes from other
youth crimes nationwide. Although law enforcement agencies he surveyed
reported an estimated 249,324 gang members, they reported only an
estimated 46,359 criminal gang incidents.

IS GANG VIOLENCE GROWING? 

Surveys over the past decade--primarily of law enforcement agencies--have
been reporting gangs in more and more cities. The gang problem is also
increasing from the standpoint of more violent offenses, more serious
injuries, and use of more lethal weapons. However, it is unclear whether
the growth in urban youth violence should be attributed largely to gangs,
"law-violating youth groups," or nongang youth: juveniles and young
adults.
 
ARE GANGS MIGRATING TO SMALLER CITIES? 

Local police and the FBI have reported the migration of Los Angeles
Crips and Bloods to as many as 45 western and midwestern cities. The
migration of gangs is being studied by Maxson and Klein (1993). Their
preliminary findings indicate considerable emergence of gangs in smaller
cities. However, family migration and local gang genesis--not
relocation--appear to be the predominate factors.

ARE GANGS EXTENSIVELY INVOLVED IN DRUG TRAFFICKING?

Little empirical research conducted over the last decade has documented
organizational operation of drug trafficking networks by gangs. However,
significant involvement of gang members has been demonstrated.  Klein,
Maxson and Cunningham's 1991 Los Angeles study examined the crack
cocaine trade.  They found that while many gang members were involved
in crack distribution (some 25% of the instances), drug trafficking was not
a primary gang activity. A few drug trafficking gangs, trafficking cliques
within gangs, and gangs established specifically for drug distribution
purposes have been identified.

CAN INCREASED HOMICIDES AND WEAPONS USE ASSOCIATED
WITH DRUG TRAFFICKING BE ATTRIBUTED TO GANGS?

Research to date has provided little support for these connections. Many
of the inner-city homicides may be as a result of turf battles, not drug
violence. Klein, Maxson, and Cunningham's 1991 Los Angeles study
found that while gang members were involved in crack distribution in
about 25% of the cases, the connection among street gangs, drugs, and
homicide was weak and did not account for the recent increase in Los
Angeles homicides. Maxson, Klein and Cunningham (1993) conducted a
similar analysis in two smaller cities outside Los Angeles. Gang members
were involved in about 27% of arrests for cocaine sales, and about 12%
of arrests connected to other drug sales. Firearms were involved in only
10% of the cases and violence was present in only 5% of the incidents.
Block and Block's (1993) Chicago study of the City's four largest and
most criminally active street gangs found only 8 of 285 gang-motivated
homicides between 1987 and 1990 to be related to drugs. Approximately
90% of violent crimes involving youth gangs, including homicides, in the
Boston area between 1984 and 1994 did not involve drug dealing or drug
use.

WHAT PROPORTION OF JUVENILES ARE GANG MEMBERS?

Nationwide data are lacking. A recent Denver study estimated 7% of
inner-city, high risk, juveniles were gang members (Esbensen and
Huizinga, 1993). Other studies have made similar estimates.

ARE GANGS COMPRISED ENTIRELY OF JUVENILES?

Gang members range from about 12- to 25-years-old. The peak age is
around 17. In some cities, especially those only recently reporting gang
problems, up to 90% of gang members are estimated to be juveniles.
More established gang cities, like Chicago, report up to 74% of gang
members are adults (Miller, 1982; Spergel, 1991).

WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT THE DYNAMICS OF GANG
MEMBERSHIP?

Studies of established gangs in chronic gang cities since the 1920's have
documented long delinquent gang careers. Recent studies in emerging
gang problem cities, like Denver (Esbensen and Huizinga) and Rochester
(Thornberry, et al.,1993) have found that most juveniles stay in the gang
for no more than a year.  Their delinquency levels were much lower both
before and after joining the gang.

IS FEMALE GANG MEMBERSHIP INCREASING?

Yes. In 1991, 27 cities reported female gangs. Curry estimated 7,205
female gang members in those 27 cities, which is less than 3% of his
national estimate.

IS THE RACIAL AND ETHNIC COMPOSITION OF GANGS
CHANGING?
 
Until about the mid-1900's the majority of gangs in America were white,
composed of various European backgrounds. By the 1970's, about
four-fifths of gang members were either African American or Hispanic.
Now, Asian gangs appear to be emerging rapidly. However, the ethnic
composition (recently migrated) and social class position (lower levels) of
gang members has remained rather constant (Miller, 1982; Spergel, 1991).

DO GANGS, ONCE ESTABLISHED IN A CITY, TEND TO
CONTINUE GROWING?  DO CHRONIC GANG PROBLEM CITIES
REMAIN SO?

No.  To some extent, gang problems are characterized by an ebb and flow
pattern. Based on their Chicago study, Block and Block contend--as have
many earlier studies since the 1920's--that street gang patterns reflect not
only chronic social problems associated with race, social class, and
immigration, but rapidly changing contemporary conditions related to the
economy, weapon availability, drug markets, and the arrangement of
street gang territories.  Noting the mysterious decrease in youth gang
violence in New York and Philadelphia in the 1970's, Walter Miller
observed that "nationwide, the prevalence of gangs at any one time more
closely resembles that of, say, influenza rather than blindness."

HAVE GANG PROBLEMS INCREASED IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS?

Yes.  Although trend measures are unavailable, Bastian and Taylor's 1991
nationwide student survey documented significant gang presence in
schools, beyond previous reports.

WHAT CAN BE DONE TO COMBAT GANGS? 

Prevention and intervention approaches to date generally have not been
found to be particularly effective, in part, because of inadequate
evaluations of interventions.  America has seen a shift in strategies over
the past 40 years: from social intervention approaches in the 1950's and
1960's to suppression strategies in the 1970's-1990's.  Spergel (1990,
1991, 1992) and his colleagues conducted a nationwide assessment of
approaches that have been aimed at youth gangs, both inside and outside
the juvenile justice system.  They found that in chronic gang problem
cities, respondents believed opportunities provision was the most effective
strategy, followed by community organization approaches. In emerging
gang problem cities, community organization was perceived as most
effective strategy.  Suppression strategies were not reported to be
particularly effective, except in conjunction with other approaches.

WHAT DOES THE OFFICE OF JUVENILE JUSTICE AND
DELINQUENCY PREVENTION PLAN TO DO TO COMBAT GANGS?

OJJDP is planning to channel its gang-related activities into a
comprehensive program, made possible by an increased appropriation
under Part D of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of
1974, as amended. Information on the Office's Comprehensive Gang
Program may be found in the Office's Program Plan for Fiscal Year 1994.

This fact sheet was primarily based on a paper by the author, entitled
"Recent Gang Research: Program and Research Implications," in
publication (Crime and Delinquency).  The paper and a list of the sources
cited in this fact sheet are available from OJJDP's Juvenile Justice
Clearinghouse. 
Telephone: 800-638-8736.

FS-9412