Virginia correctional history mirrors the economic, cultural, and political conditions characterizing the State. Not long after the Revolutionary War, Virginia leaders looked to the North and to Europe for innovative corrections approaches. Authorized in 1796, the penitentiary built in Richmond was an attempt at providing the humane correction of offenders. From that time until the Civil War, penitentiary managers tried to implement imprisonment combined with work rather than corporal punishment. After the Civil War, Virginia joined other Southern States in exploiting convict labor. In the early 20th century, the system expanded beyond the penitentiary to include penal farms and field units for highway construction. Correctional institutions for juveniles also emerged. From the final abandonment of whipping to the development of realistic alternative programs, Virginia has aimed at achieving a mature and modern approach to corrections. By the end of 1983, the most important achievement has been the system's decision to pursue fairness in the treatment of inmates and staff without regard to race or sex. An appended list of superintendents and administrators, chapter notes, and a subject index. (Publisher summary modified)