The naturalness of punishment is considered with reference to primitive man's relation to the environment and the consequences of actions. The role of killing and dying in early religious sacrificial rituals is examined; the contributions of religion to the evolution of punishment are considered, with special attention to the Italian and Spanish Inquisitions and the expression of punishment in 17th and 18th century England. Political and social functions of punishment are discussed in terms of obedience and reciprocity models of punishment. The use of punishment in the service of obedience is considered with respect to the social institutions of family, school, slavery, the military, religion, and the criminal justice system. The use of punishment in the service of the State also is traced, and the distinction between retribution and deterrence is examined. Psychological research and theory of punishment is reviewed, and the punishment of animals and groups also is discussed. Finally, the gradual construction in the use of punishment, both bodily and psychological, over the course of history is traced; with special emphasis on the notion of justice in punishment. Illustrations, chapter footnotes, and index.