The earliest theories of deviance were demonological, viewing the criminal as a sinner possessed by demons or controlled by other-worldly powers. The classical school of criminology viewed individuals as motivated by hedonism, while economic theories held that class structure and inequality were major factors. Positivism focused on explaining and treating individual pathology. Biological positivism has posited genetic and hereditary factors, in criminality. Psychological positivism has examined the contributions of personality and mental differences. Sociological theories are diverse and consider social categories, rather than individuals. Anomie theories view normlessness as a causative factor. Social process theories emphasize learned or culturally transmitted factors, and include differential association and subculture theories. Social control theories address the issue of how society elicits or fails to elicit conformity to conventional values and norms. Critical criminological theories include labeling, conflict, and radical (Marxist) theories. Only the positivistic, social process, and social control theories consider the family as a primary factor in criminality. A variety of studies have examined the role of such variables as family structure, relations, deviance, and child-rearing practices in criminality and deviance. 67 references.