Almost all the research relates to males and has focused on three main themes: the reconviction rates related to particular prisons or programs, the lasting psychological effects of imprisonment, and the prediction of major breakdowns in control within prisons. Findings have shown that none of the special programs has had significant effects on recidivism. In addition, about one-third of the male inmate population between 1966 and 1977 were found to have impaired social functioning or mental disorders before reaching prison. However, no evidence was found regarding intellectual deterioration in long-term incarceration. Furthermore, catastrophe theory has not been useful in predicting major prison disturbances. Further research should focus on prison management, how it actually operates, and effects of various approaches on inmate behavior and management. Additional research recommendations and 132 references.