The youths were all born in South Vietnam and ranged in age from 17 to 21 years, although official records showed their ages as 15 to 18. Fifteen had been convicted of armed robbery. Their life histories showed that they had experienced multiple marginality as a result of the Vietnam war, low socioeconomic status, governmental neglect, culture conflict, and racism. This marginality prevented them from attaining their goals through the traditional methods of education and hard work. Thus, they turned to gangs as a means of acquisition without assimilation. Money was the main focus of the gangs. Their robbery victims were always Vietnamese, and most robberies took place in the victims' homes. The gangs were structured loosely, but the youths formed and maintained intense personal bonds with one another.