During the 1980's both the United Nations and the Council of Europe developed recommendations for improving the victim's position in criminal law and procedure. Thus, offender restitution has been acknowledged as an independent penal sanction by the United Nations and the Council of Europe and codified in the Federal criminal legislation of the United States. Both international organizations also recognize the need for the criminal justice system to use procedures that avoid secondary victimization by causing additional mental harm to victims. However, changes in laws and procedures are insufficient in this area, especially with regard to raped and battered women and physically and sexual abused children. Similarly, the importance of mediation is recognized by international bodies, but not by many criminal law scholars. Discussions are also focused on the victim's role in causing some crimes. 30 references