By 1550, England and other western European countries looked mainly to the legal system for settling disputes. Early modern punishment included fines, the stocks, the ducking stool, and other penalties that were usually public, intended to shame, and administered in the village among familiar people. Capital punishment was used extensively, while incarceration was rare. The prison became the major innovation of the 19th century, while the 20th century began with a period of optimism and correctional reform. Capital punishment was abolished in 1965. However, prison populations have increased, and correctional institutions are now extremely overcrowded. Since the late 1970's corrections policy has emphasized punishment rather than rehabilitation, although probation is widely used. The current system faces a crisis, and discussions of changes, aided by an awareness of the history of penal policy, are needed. Notes and 143 references