The province had a longstanding reputation for lawlessness and violence including coastal piracy, armed feuds, secret society disturbances, and the banditry that accompanied the ongoing social and economic changes in China. Many itinerant laborers, beggars, and others joined bandit gangs and other illegal associations for self-defense and survival. The first law to address the problem of Kwangtung bandits was enacted by the Emperor in 1780 and required the execution by decapitation of those involved in any way in banditry conducted by gangs of 10 or more. The law was rescinded in 1801, and cases were then handled the same as cases in other provinces. However, another new and particularly harsh law was enacted in 1811. Further policy and legal measures were adopted in 1821 and 1824. In addition, annual military campaigns were conducted between 1826 and 1832 against the persistent bandits who hid in the mountainous areas of the province. However, the records of that era strongly suggest that Kwangtung officials were ineffective in controlling banditry or reducing crime after 1810. Tables, illustration, and 68 reference notes