In addition, the study explored programs and strategies to prevent and reduce gang violence. Research tasks included a review of current and past literature about gangs, ride- alongs with police and probation departments' gang units, interviews with local experts, surveys of practitioners in many disciplines, and interviews with known gang members on intensive probation supervision. Study findings show that San Diego gang members are similar in many ways to their counterparts in other areas of the country with respect to individual perceptions as well as features of gang involvement. Gang membership generally evolves from friendship groups formed in early childhood. Gang involvement solidifies peer relationships and brings feelings of status, pride, recognition, excitement, and power to members. Most gangs are loosely organized with unstructured activities and changing leadership. The most frequent activity of gang members is hanging out with "homies" (friends from the neighborhood, homeboys). Gang members show strong attachments to their families and neighborhoods. Violence is a feature of gangs and is used primarily to protect turf or territory or in retaliation for perceived wrongdoing. Attitudes of gang members suggest that violence is an acceptable means for addressing conflict. Most gang members use illicit drugs and many also sell them, but sales are not a highly organized gang activity. Programs to reduce gang violence must involve a wide array of agencies, including schools, community-based agencies, churches, and the justice system. Programs must be targeted appropriately for prevention, intervention, suppression, and rehabilitation purposes. 47 tables, 1 figure, 70 references, and appended supplementary material