A major issue is the level of organized and transnational crime, including corruption, drug law offenses, the smuggling of people and goods, as well as hate crimes, domestic assault, sex offenses, economic and environmental offenses, and mass criminality. Relatively clear cycles have occurred in the response to crime, although the shifts take place at different times in different countries. In addition, criminal justice has been criticized both for excessively stigmatizing offenders and for inadequately protecting victims. It is also said to function in an inequitable and ineffective manner. One response has been to call for a shift where possible from formal social control to informal approaches, through diversion, mediation, and restitution. However, the traditional system of criminal sanctions will remain important. The use of imprisonment appears to be increasing, and noncustodial sanctions appear to be less effective than expected. Another response has been privatization through security partnerships between law enforcement agencies, businesses, and institutions and through privatization in corrections. The debate on crime control and the tensions between retribution and prevention as well as liberty and security are likely to continue. 22 references