Callahan argues for a combination of "freestanding" (separate, full course on ethics) and "pervasive" ethics instruction (incorporation of ethics instruction into other courses). Kamm agrees with this approach and also agrees that practical ethics is not merely the application of historically important ethical principles to practical problems. Kamm's major questions about Callahan concern her view of ethical theory. Kamm believes Callahan equates doing ethical theory with considering principles put forth by historically well-known philosophers or schools of philosophy; however, Kamm argues that a study of moral theory need refer to neither historical schools nor figures, and can be done with the aim of finding the true theory rather than mere acquaintance with a cultural heritage. Whitbeck argues for an ethics teaching strategy that uses real-life cases that involve morally relevant factors. Kamm agrees that there should be attention to real-life cases in teaching criminal justice ethics, but the analyses yielded by consideration of types of problems is bound to be relevant to decisions in the particular cases. Further, types of problems may include many specifics. It is important that the teaching of ethics go beyond a mere case- by-case consideration, since no two cases will ever be exactly the same. Principles must be formulated that go beyond case factors and explain when factors are determinative and when they are not. Kamm concludes with a comparison of the ethical decisionmaking procedures proposed by Callahan, Whitbeck, and James Childress, whom Whitbeck mentions in her paper. 6 notes