The history of punishment is reviewed from the Roman Republic to the late Roman Empire, with information provided in some decisive aspects of Roman history. Trials for treason, sedition, and corruption illuminate political history, and common law crimes such as murder, poisoning, rape, adultery, and forgery illuminate social history. In addition, the discussion on freedom of speech increases contemporary understanding of intellectual history and religious persecutions illustrate important events from a religious history perspective. The author considers punishment in ancient Rome over a 500-year period, noting punishment changed according to different penal systems over the period. Debates about punishment ranged from human rights and civil liberties to the question of whether lower classes should be punished less severely because of their diminished moral capacities. Some favored fixed statutory penalties, while others defended discretionary penalties and variable objectives. Punishment is assessed in terms of its innate humanity and cruelty, and public opinions about punishment in ancient Rome are examined. The focus is on trials and criminal jurisprudence. References and notes