Grid-group theory measures cultural biases in terms of their level of prescriptiveness of norms (grid) and affiliation between individuals (group). Grid signifies the extent to which individuals are bound by rules and regulations within a society. Group signifies the level of commitment that individuals have to units greater than themselves and to what extent they are incorporated into these units. These elements combine to produce four “world-views” that structure the organizations and perceptions within societies. There are four grid-group classification schemes and modalities of risk and blame: fatalism, hierarchy, individualism, and enclavism. The fatalistic culture scores high on grid and low on group, as its members feel bound by a system of rules over which they have no control and are unable to initiate collective action to change these conventions due to their low group affiliations. Hierarchy scores highly on grid and group. This is a society with high attachments between people and a host or rules and conventions governing behavior. An individualist society would be one that scores low on both grid and group. There are relatively few boundaries between individuals and few proscriptions on what individuals can do. The basic idea of enclavism is that it is a grouping that displays strong affiliations between persons and where conduct is relatively unregulated by rules or conventions. Accounts of punishment need to move beyond a twofold model of penal practices, which are split between some form of individualist and hierarchical models of organization. The grid-group theory is a good starting point for recognizing the complexity of social relations and reflecting on the strengths and weaknesses of modalities of punishment. 7 notes, 53 references