Criminal corruption among public officials refers to the offering, receiving, or demanding of benefits for using one's official position in an unfair or discriminatory manner. Guilt is attached to both the giving and receiving of such bribes. There are no direct victims in such acts of corruption, since both the giver and receiver of bribes gain benefits. The victims are the government, which loses its credibility with citizens, and the public, which fails to benefit from a democratically fair and efficient dispensing of government services and resources. Public corruption can be prevented and countered by making the decisions of public officials more transparent, such that favoritism is exposed. Other effective measures are the provision of higher salaries for public officials, so as to reduce the temptation to use illegal sources of income; the broad use of criminal investigations into corrupt officials; training in and the enforcement of codes of conduct for public officials; systems of financial disclosure; and the protection of "whistleblowers." 19 references