In colonial America, corrections practices resembled medieval corporal punishments and those brought from England. There was no uniform nor structured correctional system. The post-independence period saw the emergence of the Pennsylvania and New York (Auburn) models of incarceration. The mid-1800's featured improved prison conditions and the development of ways to modify offenders' behaviors, such as probation and parole. The early 20th century experienced the birth of modern psychology and a focus on the causes of criminality. The 1960's was characterized by efforts to improve offender's social and vocational skills, so as to prepare them for responsible roles in society. During the 1970's the characterizations of crime and drug-enforcement policies and practices as "wars" reflected an aggressive "get tough" deterrence philosophy that produced dramatic increases in inmate populations and the number of offenders under correctional supervision. The U.S. correctional system currently manages 6.6 million offenders, the majority of whom are in community corrections programs. The issues currently facing American corrections include those that pertain to gender-based management problems, the disproportionate representation of minority racial and ethnic groups among offenders, prison crowding, and the persistence of the death penalty in the face of international declarations and covenants. Future directions are likely to involve the expanded use of drug courts, the need to address human rights and torture issues in the treatment of alleged terrorists, and the abolition of the death penalty. Discussion questions, Web-links, and 32 references