Contradicting this view are many historians and criminologists, beginning with Joseph Albini in "The American Mafia: Genesis of a Legend" (1971), who have found little evidence of the truth of commonly accepted versions of organized crime's history in America. Albini found no evidence of a national cartel of crime, and he concluded that the structures of criminal syndicates in the United States were not characterized by a consistent bureaucratic hierarchy composed of specific ranks. Albini's research pointed to criminal syndicates as systems of patron-client relationships that varied from syndicate to syndicate, and each syndicate could be understood only within the context of its own development; however, the wealth of quality research that has confirmed and expanded upon Albini's findings has been overwhelmed by the embedded cultural myth of the Italian Mafia as the dominating, hierarchical manifestation of organized crime in America. In reviewing some of the books that challenge this view, this article documents the presence of criminal syndicates in America before the wave of Italian immigrants and discusses the various types of organized criminal groups that have had significant criminal operations in the country. These include Chinese-American gangs, African-American organized crime groups, Colombian-based drug cartels operating in America, and organized facets of corporate and state corruption. Finland is cited as an example of a government that has made a concerted effort to research organized crime and develop policies that reflect that research. The author does not see this happening in America. 36 notes