The organizational structure of Yakuza syndicates are explained, as well as their recruitment and training processes, their major sources of income, and the prevalence of Yakuza inter-gang conflict. The recent expansion of Yakuza syndicates into the Tokyo area, where they engage in money lending operations in the entertainment district, is considered a significant development in the evolution of Yakuza. Main factors driving Yakuza evolution in the future will be changes in the legal and law enforcement environments and changes in economic opportunities. Current day Yakuza have two distinct heritage lines: gamblers (Bakuto) and itinerant peddlers (Tekiya). During the early 20th century, gambling groups enjoyed growth as they were used by industries to counter labor unrest and left wing protests. As Japan’s economy grew stronger during the period 1950 through 1963, gambling groups evolved into mafia groups, extorting protection money from businesses and providing day laborers to construction and docking industries. In response to widespread concern about Yakuza violence, authorities implemented the first Yakuza countermeasure strategy that resulted in the mass arrests of Yakuza members. During the 1970s the Yakuza expanded into amphetamine dealing while the 1980s brought opportunities for large-scale corporate blackmailing schemes and extortion from right-wing activists. These types of activities flourished as they were not easily prosecuted under the existing legal framework in Japan. In 1991, many factors converged to force the police to draft a new anti-Yakuza law, the “Boryokudan Countermeasures law,” which was passed unanimously by the Diet (Japanese Parliament). The law is explained, as are the Yakuza’s attempts to sidestep the law, such as through the establishment of front companies. The impact of Japan’s economic downturn on the vitality and operations of the Yakuza are analyzed and current Yakuza membership levels are examined. Notes, references