Children's exposure to domestic violence can include not only seeing the violence occur between the partners but also hearing it, being forced to participate in the violence, or used as part of a violent incident. Regarding the extent of children's exposure to domestic violence in Australia, the International Violence Against Women Survey found that of women who had experienced partner violence and had children living with them at the time, 36 percent reported that their children had witnessed a domestic violence incident. Another study found that Indigenous children in Australia were significantly more likely to have witnessed physical violence against their mother or stepmother than the "average" child respondent. In addition, research has consistently shown that violent households are significantly more likely to have children than nonviolent households. The impacts on children of their exposure to domestic violence include adverse psychological and behavioral problems, other health issues, socioeconomic handicaps, and increased risk for being a perpetrator or victim of violence. Although there are a range of policy initiatives and programs that are designed to address domestic violence and/or child abuse, few specifically address children's exposure to domestic violence. Research indicates that there are a number of strategies that could inform effective responses to the problem, including increased awareness of children's exposure to domestic violence as a form of child abuse; early intervention; and holistic and multidisciplinary approaches that involve police, domestic violence workers, child-protection workers, and other relevant professionals. 1 table and 20 references