THE SHIFT FROM A SOCIAL POLICY SLANTED TOWARD PROPERTY OWNERS TO A MORE HUMANISTIC STANCE CAN BE INFERRED FROM THE PROCESS OF SOCIAL CHANGE OUTLINED BY MARX AND ENGELS, AND FROM THE ACTIONS OF SOME ENLIGHTENED CAPITALISTS. THE DOMINANT CLASS WAS NO LONGER ABLE TO CONTINUE ITS HARSH TREATMENT OF THE WORKING CLASS WITH IMPUNITY, BECAUSE OF THE GROWTH OF TRADE UNIONS AND NEW IDEAS OF SOCIAL WELFARE. FURTHER, RAPIDLY EXPANDING INDUSTRIAL ECONOMY NEEDED NEW SOURCES OF CHEAP LABOR TO GUARANTEE CONTINUED GROWTH. THE UNTAPPED RESERVOIR OF LABOR IN PRISONS AND ON INDIAN RESERVATIONS PROVIDED THE UNDERLYING RATIONALE FOR THE TWIN SOCIAL MOVEMENTS OF PRISON REFORM AND THE RECLAMATION OF THE INDIANS. THE PROCLAIMED GOALS OF RESOCIALIZING THE WARDS OF THE RESERVATIONS AND THE PRISONS WERE CARRIED OUT FOR PRAGMATIC AS WELL AS HUMANISTIC NEEDS. INDIANS SEQUESTERED ON RESERVATIONS AND INMATES INCARCERATED IN PENAL INSTITUTIONS WERE SEEN AS SIMILAR POPULATIONS -- REMOVED TO TOTAL INSTITUTIONS FOR THE PUBLIC WELFARE. INDEED, INDIAN RESERVATIONS WERE TANTAMOUNT TO PRISON CAMPS, AND THE PRISON REFORM MOVEMENT LED INEXORABLY TO RESERVATION REFORM IN WHICH INDIANS COULD BE 'SCHOOLED' INTO 'CIVILIZED' BEHAVIOR, PERMITTING THEIR ASSIMILATION INTO LARGER AMERICAN SOCIETY. IN THIS ERA, THE PROFESSIONALIZATION OF PENOLOGY OCCURRED, WITH THE DISSEMINATION OF ITS PRECEPTS. POSITIONS TAKEN AT PENOLOGICAL CONFERENCES FOUND THEIR WAY INTO THE LITERATURE OF THE 'INDIAN EXPERTS,' FOR INSTANCE, THE PRINCIPLE OF HARD LABOR. THE FIRST 'REFORMATORY' FOR MEN WAS ESTABLISHED IN ELMIRA, NEW YORK, IN 1877, AND OTHER INSTITUTIONS STARTED DEMOCRATIC INMATE GOVERNMENT. SIMILAR DEMOCRATIC INNOVATIONS WERE URGED ON RESERVATIONS, BUT SUCH INNOVATIONS WERE A SHAM, AS REAL POWER CONTINUED TO BE VESTED IN THE MANAGERS OF THESE INSTITUTIONS. IN SHORT, THE PRINCIPAL MOTIVES OF THESE SOCIAL REFORMERS WERE NOT HUMANISTIC AND MORALISTIC, BUT MERCANTILISTIC AND CAPITALISTIC. THE PROFESSED HUMANITARIAN SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY OF REFORMERS OF THE ERA WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN EXTENDED TO INMATES AND INDIANS HAD IT NOT SERVED THE EXPEDIENT BUSINESS INTERESTS OF THE LARGER SOCIETY. EVEN TODAY, REFORMERS STILL USE THE SAME SLOGANS THAT THEY DID 100 YEARS AGO, BUT EFFORTS TO PREPARE INMATES AND INDIANS FOR ENTRY OR REENTRY INTO SOCIETY ARE TOTALLY INADEQUATE. THE ECONOMIC IMPERATIVES HAVE LONG SINCE VANISHED, BUT THE MORALISM LINGERS ON. (DJM)