THE NORMATIVE OR MORALISTIC APPROACH TO CRIME CAUSATION IS ASSOCIATED WITH TRADITIONAL POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY, THEOLOGY, AND THE NEOCLASSICAL AND AND CLASSICAL SOCIOLOGIES OF THE 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES, FINDING ITS PROPONENTS IN PLATO, THE PURITANS AND THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH, BENTHAM, AND VOLTAIRE, AMONG OTHERS. IN GENERAL, NORMATIVE THEORIES WERE PREDICATED UPON THE ASSUMPTIONS THAT CRIME WAS RELATIVE TO THE PARTICULAR CULTURE, WAS A MATTER OF SOCIAL DIVIANCE, COULD BE DETERRED BY PUNISHMENT, AND NECESSITATED THE REEDUCATION AND RESOCIALIZATION OF THE CRIMINAL. THE EMPIRICAL OR SCIENTIFIC THEORIES FOUND THEIR BASIS IN THE POSITIVISTIC APPROACHES OF LOMBROSO, FERRI, AND GAROFALO IN THE MID TO LATE 19TH CENTURY. THESE THEORIES ARE IN GENERAL BASED ON NUMEROUS HIGHLY SPECIALIZED STUDIES FOCUSING ON ENVIRONMENTAL, BIOLOGICAL/PHYSIOLOGICAL, AND SOCIOCULTURAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS IN CRIME CAUSATION, AND CONSTITUTE THE BULK OF CRIMINOLOGICAL STUDIES IN THE 20TH CENTURY. BOTH ORIENTATIONS UNDERLIE THE POPULAR RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CRIME REDUCTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM. NEITHER APPROACH ALONE, NOR SPECIAL EMPHASES WITHIN EITHER APPROACH, IS CAPABLE OF OFFERING A COMPREHENSIVE EXPLANATION FOR ALL TYPES OF CRIME.