THE PRIMARY TOOLS IN THE INVESTIGATION OF FORENSIC CASES HAVE ALWAYS BEEN OBSERVATION AND INTERPRETATION OF PHYSICAL FINDINGS. DURING THE LAST HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY, SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUES WERE FIRST APPLIED IN THE FIELDS OF CHEMISTRY, MICROSCOPY, AND PHOTOGRAPHY. THESE DEVELOPMENTS REVOLUTIONIZED THE MANNER OF CASE INVESTIGATION AND IMPROVED THE VALIDITY OF CONCLUSIONS DRAWN BY INVESTIGATORS. SCIENTIFIC LABORATORIES WITHIN POLICE ORGANIZATIONS EVOLVED FROM IDENTIFICATION FUNCTIONS. AMERICAN FORENSIC SCIENTISTS ARE NOW WELL ORGANIZED INTO THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF FORENSIC SCIENCES, WHICH WAS ESTABLISHED IN 1950. WITHIN THE DISCIPLINE OF FORENSIC SCIENCES SEVERAL SPECIFIC AREAS OF EXPERTISE HAVE EVOLVED: PATHOLOGY AND BIOLOGY, TOXICOLOGY, ANTHROPOLOGY, ODONTOLOGY, PSYCHIATRY, QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS, CRIMINALISTICS, AND JURISPRUDENCE. FORENSIC PATHOLOGY IS A SPECIALTY OF MEDICINE AND A SUBSPECIALTY OF PATHOLOGY. IT INVOLVES THE STUDY OF THE PROBLEMS RELATED TO UNNATURAL DEATH AND VARIOUS TYPES OF TRAUMA TO THE LIVING. BIOLOGICAL TESTING OF EVIDENCE INCLUDES BLOOD TYPE INVESTIGATION AND STAIN IDENTIFICATION FOR CONTENT. TOXICOLOGY DEALS WITH THE DETECTION OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN BODY TISSUES AND FLUIDS. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGISTS ARE EXPERTS IN THE IDENTIFICATION OF BONES AND SKELETAL REMAINS. ODONTOLOGISTS PROVIDE INFORMATION THROUGH EXAMINATION OF TEETH AND DENTAL PROTHESES. CRIMINALISTICS REQUIRES SEVERAL TYPES OF EXPERTISE INCLUDING BALLISTICS, EXPLOSIVE DEVICES, AND SOIL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES. FORENSIC CASES INVOLVING THE LIVING FREQUENTLY FOCUS ON ALCOHOL INTOXICATION, SEXUAL PROBLEMS, SELF-INFLICTION OF SELF, AND IATROGENIC PROBLEMS. AS PART OF THEIR GENERAL RESPONSIBILITIES, PATHOLOGISTS MUST DEAL WITH EXAMINATION OF DECEASED PERSONS. IN MEDICOLEGAL CASES, PERMISSION FOR EXAMINATION IS OBTAINED THROUGH THE CORONER, WHO ESTABLISHES THE CAUSE OF DEATH, AS REQUIRED BY STATUTE. ACCURATE DOCUMENTATION OF SUCH CASES IS EXTREMELY IMPORTANT.