There is general agreement that ex-offenders being stigmatized and untrained competitors in society contributes to their recidivism. Being unable to compete successfully in normative society contributes to a negative self-concept, which obstructs resocialization. Unmet needs for respect, belonging, counseling, and help in coping with frustration have also been found to be directly related to recidivism. A common feature among parole violators is their lack of desire to change their deviant mode of living. An attraction to persons with similar problems and criminal values further reinforces a deviant lifestyle, particularly when family and friends who could provide normative role models fail to provide the support needed for resocialization. Incarceration also appears to increase the likelihood of recidivism, while alternatives to imprisonment seem to be more effective in promoting reintegration. Other factors contributing to recidivism are long sentences, intensive parole supervision, lack of employable skills, and drug and alcohol abuse. Prison education and vocational programs, including work release, can help a releasee compete successfully in the marketplace and thus reduce the likelihood of reoffending. Forty-four references are listed.