The lack of investigation into this issue is particularly notable, given the frequent assertion that rehabilitative effects of custodial institutions are unlikely to last because the social environment into which inmates are discharged is a more immediate and powerful influence than the carceral experience. The main types of harm which prisons are said to cause are harm to physical and mental health, psychological stress, increased likelihood of recidivism, negative attitudes toward authority as a result of unfair handling of grievances, and problems with families. However, the literature produces conflicting results on many of these points. Imprisonment is almost always boring, irksome, and humiliating. It also increases the individual's chances of being assaulted. In addition, reconviction rates increase with the length and frequency of custody. However, these negative effects which have been demonstrated only in some prisoners with long-term sentences do not necessarily apply to those with short sentences. Furthermore, it is unfair to attribute to all prisons the evils of the worst kinds of total institution. Eighteen references are listed.