It is argued that while some of these contradictions can be traced to the wider social structure of capitalism in which the alternative collective forms are located, others stem directly from the semi-autonomous nature of individuals and the social groups which they form. The implications of this for change are discussed and it is suggested that attempts to restructure criminal justice systems are likely to be more successful it they are based on an understanding of the integral nature of the relationship between individual action and wider structural settings; and if we adopt a conceptual framework distinguishing horizontally between different institutions of control and vertically between different depths of formality. (Author abstract)