Title: The Ultimate Educator: Achieving Maximum Adult Learning Through Training and Instruction Series: National Victim Assistance Academy Advanced Topic Series Authors/Editors: Christine Edmunds, Kip Lowe, Morna Murray, Anne Seymour for the National Victim Assistance Academy. Sponsored by the U.S. Department of Justice, Office for Victims of Crime, National Victim Assistance Academy; in conjunction with Victims' Assistance Legal Organization (VALOR), California State University-Fresno, National Crime Victims' Research and Treatment Center at the Medical University of South Carolina, University of New Haven, and Washburn University Published: June 2002 Subject: Victim assistance training and leadership 132 pages 274,432 bytes ---------------------------- Appendices, figures, charts, forms, and tables are not included in this ASCII plain-text file. To view this document in its entirety, download the Adobe Acrobat graphic file available from this Web site. ---------------------------- Table of Contents Chapter 1. The Many Roles and Responsibilities of the Ultimate Educator o Introduction o The Ultimate Educator o Roles and Responsibilities o It's Magic Time! Chapter 2. Ultimate Coordination o Introduction o Three Needs to Which Coordinators Respond o The Many Roles of the Program Coordinator o Four Guiding Principles of Coordination o Program Coordination in Action o The Ultimate Coordinator Is All Things to All People! o References Chapter 3. Ultimate Adult Learning o Historical Roots of Adult Learning Principles o Adult Learning and the Ultimate Educator o Learning Style o Learning Environment Conditions Affect Learning o The Ultimate Educator Is an Adult Learning Expert! o References Chapter 4. Ultimate Style and Skill o Introduction o Style Stereotypes o Communication Style o Trainer Skill Assessment o The Ultimate Educator Has Ultimate Style! o References Chapter 5. Ultimate Facilitation o Introduction o Doing Your Homework o Responsive Behaviors o General Skills o The Ultimate Facilitator Is a Master Magician! Chapter 6. Ultimate Presentation o Introduction o The Role of the Presenter/Trainer o Teaching Versus Training o Training Preparation o Anatomy of a Presentation o Communication Skills and Styles o Dealing with "Problem Participants" o Training Aids o "Staying on the Cutting Edge" o References Chapter 7. Ultimate Lesson Development and Design o Introduction o Background Information o Materials Required o Learning Goals and Objectives o Instructional Activities o Evaluation/Assessment o Putting It Together: Lesson Plan Principles and Preparation o Follow-up Activities o References Chapter 8. Ultimate Closing and Evaluation o Introduction o Ending an Individual Session o Ending the Workshop o Evaluation o Ultimate Educators Close Workshops with Style and Class and Gather the Information Necessary to Provide Even Better Training in the Future! o References ---------------------------- Appendices are not included in this ASCII plain-text file. To view this document in its entirety, download the Adobe Acrobat graphic file available from this Web site. ---------------------------- This project was supported by Grant Number 95-MU-GX-K002(S-5) awarded by the Office for Victims of Crime, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. The Assistant Attorney General, Office of Justice Programs coordinates the activities of the following program offices and bureaus: Bureau of Justice Assistance, Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Institute of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Victims of Crime. Points of view in this document are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. ---------------------------- Chapter 1. The Many Roles and Responsibilities of the Ultimate Educator Introduction Many of you have had the pleasure of learning new information or a new skill under the guidance of a skilled teacher, changing your behavior assisted by a skilled therapist, or acquiring new knowledge aided by a skilled trainer. You remember with fondness and admiration that sixth grade teacher, for example, and wonder how he or she worked magic. You have written on evaluations, "outstanding instructor, best training session I have ever attended, I learned a lot!" What was it about these "magicians" that made those situations such rich and rewarding learning experiences? Behind every learning opportunity there was an ultimate educator: an individual who helped you explore ideas and feelings, assess and analyze, and develop and implement new ways of thinking and behaving. Certainly there was something "special" about these gifted individuals, and yet underneath all that magic, there was keen understanding and some readily identifiable skills that made it all work. What makes this course different from other "how to train" courses? The difference is subtle but powerful; a difference that gains clarity and importance as you progress through the course. Most "how to train" courses focus on the content of training, the "basics," such as adult learning principles, lesson plan development, training design, training tools, and evaluation--all important and essential elements of a trainer development course. Participants in these courses limit their attention to the "tangible" components (the what) of training. They learn how to develop, organize, deliver, and evaluate training with a few presentation tips and strategies. When participants apply their new knowledge and skills back in the "real world," they feel somewhat more competent and may improve their overall rating, but they may still look back to that magical instructor and ask themselves why, when they seemingly applied the same principles and techniques, it just was not as effective (or as enjoyable!). An effective trainer development course must also explore the process--the how to of training. What does the instructor do to ensure that session participants successfully meet learning objectives? How does the instructor perform the magic of training? This manual and the accompanying training program define the multifaceted role of the "magician" and look behind the smoke and mirrors to uncover the magician's secrets. You will explore and manipulate principles that underlie all quality "magic shows." You will learn and practice skills to add to your trick bag and use the magic of this manual to transform yourself into the ultimate educator. The Ultimate Educator Whether the environment is an academic classroom or training venue, the goal is the same: maximum adult learning. With the focus of this course being the identification of principles and skills that contribute to maximum adult learning, the individual who performs the "magic" is the ultimate educator. The ultimate educator is a cross between a teacher and trainer. Employing a combination of academic approaches and training skill-building strategies, the ultimate educator creates a rich learning environment. The skills are universal and cross all learning boundaries and content areas. Throughout the manual certain terms are interchangeable--training, trainer, education, educator, instruction, instructor. This is a reflection of the vision of the ultimate educator and the "magic" of learning. Teachers and trainers, new or seasoned, can benefit from the principles and skills identified in this manual. Roles and Responsibilities The traditional perception of the instructor as a presenter of information is far too simple. Within individual segments and across an entire course, the ultimate educator wears many hats. The ultimate educator is a coordinator, facilitator, presenter, and designer/developer. The roles and responsibilities change with the type of training conducted by the ultimate educator. The training program may be a one-hour stand-alone session or a week-long academy; each dictates different and often unique responsibilities for the instructor. You may be called upon to develop training, coordinate a multiday workshop, deliver a single segment, participate in a panel discussion with people you have never met before, or facilitate a group process. While not all responsibilities will be required in all situations, these are some of the critical responsibilities of the educator. THE COORDINATOR Man stand for long time with mouth open before roast duck fly in. --Chinese Proverb Just as much of the design work of training takes place before the trainer takes the stage, much coordination takes place behind the scenes. The ultimate educator must be skilled in the coordination of training. Often you find that in addition to delivering courses, you are required to perform management tasks related to coordination or training. While there is usually not much glory in these responsibilities, they are critical; without successful coordination, the session cannot take place. Chapter 2, Ultimate Coordination, addresses coordination topics such as logistics, scheduling, publicity, room setup, budget, special needs, trouble shooting, and climate control. THE FACILITATOR They are able because they think they are able. --Virgil, Aeneid Learning objectives tell you where you need to go. Training design is the map; presentation, the vehicle; facilitation, the fuel. Effective facilitation skills help guarantee that learning takes place. The ultimate educator is a master facilitator. Chapter 5, Ultimate Facilitation, covers facilitation topics such as responsive behaviors, motivation, commitment, body language, cooperation, group dynamics, activities monitoring, knowledge solicitation, and handling problem participants. THE PRESENTER The secret of teaching is to appear to have known all your life what you learned this afternoon. --Unknown The traditional role of instructor as presenter has received the bulk of attention in training-for-trainer courses and is the most visible role in the training session. One may adequately fill other instructor roles, but an outstanding instructor is always an outstanding presenter. Therefore, the ultimate educator is a skilled presenter. Chapter 6, Ultimate Presentation, de-mystifies the art of presentation. You will learn about organization, hooks, aids, challenges, styles, roles, and how to handle questions and answers. THE DESIGNER/DEVELOPER "Can you tell me please which way I ought to go from here?" said Alice. "That depends a good deal on where you want to get to," said the Cat. "I don't much care where," said Alice "Then it doesn't matter which way you walk," said the Cat. -- Lewis Carroll (1886) Much of the work of training takes place before the trainer takes the stage. The ultimate educator must be knowledgeable about and skilled in the design and development of training programs. Once you have established a need for training, it's time to determine what you intend to teach and what the participant must do to demonstrate that he or she has mastered or learned the objectives of the course. After writing specific performance objectives, the ultimate educator then selects the methods, techniques, and materials that will ensure successful training. Chapter 7, Ultimate Lesson Development and Design, explores these components of training programs. It's Magic Time! The manual and the accompanying training program cover additional topics essential for the development of ultimate educators. Chapter 3, Ultimate Adult Learning, provides the foundation for ultimate training and creating the ultimate learning environment. Chapter 4, Ultimate Style and Skill, explores the characteristics of successful instructors and provides an opportunity to assess your own personal style. And last, Chapter 8, Ultimate Closing and Evaluation, discusses the importance of effective training closure and evaluation. Are you ready? It's magic time! ---------------------------- Chapter 2. Ultimate Coordination Program planners are very much like orchestra conductors. They must be able to bring together diverse players and pieces in a harmonious and balanced effort. This task may not be easy; some of the pieces may be much more difficult than anticipated . . . --Caffarella Introduction Coordinating a training/educational program is a significant and complex undertaking. The process of coordination begins well before the start of a training program and concludes long after the final closing has taken place. Along the way, tasks range from the mundane to the more complicated, from scheduling meeting rooms to curriculum development, from ordering food to responding to participants' inquiries. Unlike the other training roles discussed throughout this manual, the role of coordination takes place, to a large extent, behind the scenes. A great majority of it occurs in preparation for the training. Effective coordination is absolutely key to the success of any training program. Why is this so? Like the orchestra described in the above quotation, a training program is a unique coming together of a talented and diverse group of individuals and elements. Like a musical selection, each note must have been rehearsed, each instrument must be tuned and ready, and each musician must have thoroughly rehearsed his or her own piece of music. The conductor knows all the parts and is able to direct and manage the multiple components into one cohesive and harmonious whole. A program coordinator fulfills the same function. Coordination is the support function of a training program--under the best of circumstances, it is the glue that holds all the various components of the program together. That is not to say that one person, i.e., the program coordinator, is responsible for holding everything together, but rather that the process of coordination, and how it has been organized, set up, and carried out, serves as the foundation for and effectively sets the tone of any training program. It is important to distinguish between the process of coordination and the role of the coordinator. Although the coordinator may be one distinct member of the training/educational team, in fact, many facilitators and presenters perform coordination functions, and coordinators often have presentation and facilitation roles as well. In any successful training program, all members of the training team (i.e., on-site faculty and coordinators) have established a smooth and effective level of teamwork that allows for maximum flexibility and is fully supportive of the needs of participants as well as the needs of the training team members. This manual repeatedly illustrates that a key role of a training team is to promote and maximize learning and, in so doing, to be fully aware of and focused upon the needs of the audience. In the same way, the process of coordination focuses upon meeting the needs of the key parties, i.e., the participants, faculty, staff, and program sponsors, in carrying out the tasks essential to managing a training program. In addition to the training team, program coordinators often work with a planning committee--a group of people who share responsibility for all decisions regarding the training program. Generally the committee will include the program sponsor, the coordinator, content specialists, and often, an advisory board or group. To maximize the effectiveness and talents of the planning committee, you must ensure from the beginning that all roles, responsibilities, and expectations regarding each member are clearly and specifically designed. SCOPE Coordination can refer to everything from a small in-house staff training to a huge national-scope conference with thousands of attendees. Coordination as it is discussed in this chapter is based predominantly on the type of training and educational programs developed and implemented by the National Victim Assistance Academy. This is not an exhaustive description of coordination from the conference-planning viewpoint but rather an exploration of the kind of program coordination that is key to the success of academic-based training and education programs for adult learners. Three Needs to Which Coordinators Respond There are three types of needs to which a program coordinator must respond. While these needs are discussed throughout this chapter, a brief summary appears below. EDUCATION/LEARNING NEEDS There are differing levels of involvement that a program coordinator may have in meeting the educational and learning needs of the training participants. Some coordinators are also "content specialists" and so have responsibility for overall coordination of every aspect of the training program, including curriculum and resource development and other educational issues. Other coordinators may focus more on the administrative and logistical tasks involved in the content portion of the training. Assuming that learning objectives and training goals have been clearly established by the training team and training sponsors well in advance of the training, the process of addressing educational needs includes management of curriculum materials, resource materials, other learning aids, training of faculty and guest speakers, training schedule, and the learning formats to be used. PHYSICAL NEEDS The participants, staff, and faculty involved in a training program have a wide variety of physical needs, and the primary goal for meeting these needs focuses on establishing maximum comfort that is individually tailored as much as possible. This includes ensuring accessibility for participants with disabilities and accommodating any and all special needs of participants and faculty; comfortable and clean rooms for participants and faculty who are staying on- site; plentiful, appetizing, and nutritious meals and snacks (if meals are not provided, then information regarding good local restaurants should be provided); well-lit and temperate meeting rooms with comfortable chairs; access to telephones; and provision of transportation and/or information regarding its availability. EMOTIONAL NEEDS The coordinator is the contact person for all participants and faculty. You must be visible, available, and accessible at all times. It is especially important for participants to know that there is one person to whom they can direct questions, concerns, problems, and complaints. It is crucial for the coordinator to understand that training programs, while learning-filled, fun, and often exhilarating, can trigger anxiety in many participants. Even seasoned faculty members can experience anxiety or concerns regarding a coordination matter. It is important for the coordinator to thoroughly understand this role and be willing and able to serve as the "central processing unit" or conduit for contact with the outside world. This can include crisis intervention and/or simply emotional support. In meeting the emotional needs of participants and faculty, coordinators may feel like "emotional punching bags." Coordinators should attempt to avoid taking issues, complaints, and concerns personally. It is helpful for coordinators to have a support person--usually a faculty member--who can debrief in difficult situations, brainstorm solutions to problems, and provide "care to the caregiving coordinator." If stress resulting from other people's emotional needs is not addressed, it can detrimentally affect both the attitude and the effectiveness of coordinators. The Many Roles of the Program Coordinator Program coordinators fulfill many roles--some of these include: o Scheduler. o Contract negotiator. o Program designer and planner. o Content expert. o Curriculum developer. o Advertising guru. o Audiovisual aid coordinator. o Budget broker. o Faculty coordinator. o Participant/student liaison. o Program sponsor liaison. o Information clearinghouse. o Physical/emotional first aid provider. o Facilities expert. o Housekeeper. o Troubleshooter. o Financial manager. o Complaint department. o Sounding board. o Mood monitor. o Deadline enforcer. o Clock watcher. o Humor relief; and let's not forget-- o Diplomat. The above list is not exhaustive by any means; effective coordination involves wearing not one hat, but literally dozens of different hats each and every day. For some people (but certainly not all), this work can be immensely interesting. However, keep in mind that effective coordination is not an "add-on" to other training tasks; it is an art that must be learned. As stated by Rosemary Caffarella: Effective program planners are not born that way. Through trial and error, they become more skilled at balancing the various components and tasks of the process (1994, 24). Because many adult trainers and educators are primarily content specialists, they may not have been exposed to or even be aware of material and information on program planning. Many learn coordination specifics "by the seat of their pants" during a previous training program, or by being asked (though they have no prior coordination experience) to serve as program coordinator for an upcoming program because of their position in the sponsoring or training organization. No matter what a coordinator's past experience, there are four principles of the coordination process that are essential to a basic understanding of the complexities of coordination, as well as the key role it serves in helping to ensure the success of any training endeavor. Four Guiding Principles of Coordination COORDINATION IS A NONLINEAR PROCESS In program coordination, there is no set order or sequence to the tasks involved. Jobs and duties do not follow one after another in orderly fashion; rather there is a constant and ever-evolving circle of interconnected parts that requires continual checking and re-checking, monitoring, and attention. The analogy of a juggler is appropriate; a coordinator must become very adept at keeping a lot of balls in the air at the same time, and be prepared to start all over again with a smile if one (or all) of those balls drop! Program coordinators must develop a working style that allows them to monitor and document the ongoing progress of the various details to which they must attend. Accurate and comprehensive record keeping is a must. It is extremely helpful to have accessible contact information (telephone number, e-mail, etc.) for all parties, e.g., training team members and facilities staff, with whom the coordinator communicates on a regular basis before, during, and after the training program. ORGANIZATION IS MANDATORY Whether you are coordinating a training for seasoned domestic violence practitioners or an academic-based educational training on restorative justice, the first rule to remember is that you must possess (or quickly develop): (1) a high level of organization; (2) an extreme degree of attention to detail; and (3) great flexibility. Again, this kind of working style is not for everyone, but program coordination will quickly suffer if the coordinator is not thoroughly in control of the many details that need to be addressed throughout the development, planning, and implementation of a training program. Successful program coordination must include an organized working plan for literally every aspect of the training program, including: o Program goals and objectives. o Staff and administrative assistance--needs and tasks. o Budget and finances. o Marketing and participant outreach. o Logistical arrangements. o Development and coordination of training materials and resources (including audiovisuals). o Faculty selection and coordination. o Participant coordination and communication. o Communication and coordination with the training sponsor. o On-site training requirements and coordination. o Evaluation. o Follow-on activities related to the program. As stated by Caffarella: Careful planning of educational programs does not guarantee their success, but it increases their probability for success. It also gives planners better data on which to evaluate their successes and failures (1994, 7). THE PERSONAL BELIEF SYSTEM OF THE COORDINATOR DIRECTLY AFFECTS THE TRAINING Another important but often overlooked aspect of program coordination is the impact that a coordinator's personal belief system--and attitude toward adult learning and program planning--has upon the training itself. Many times coordinators think that since much of what they do in preparation for a training or educational program is largely unseen by the participants, their attitude toward program planning will not affect the participants. Alternatively, if a program coordinator is not directly involved in training the participants, she or he might feel that her or his understanding of the program and adult learning in general is not critical to the program's success. This is, quite simply, untrue. If you are coordinating a program for adult learners, regardless of whether you are actually involved in making a presentation or facilitating a session, you must understand the underlying goals and purposes of this learning, and be aware of the attitudes you bring to the program planning and educational process. As discussed in Chapter 3, Ultimate Adult Learning, adults learn best when they are involved in the learning process and when what they are learning is relevant for them in their professional lives. Adults do not want to be "taught to"; rather, they need to be active participants with a stake in the outcome of any learning process. The philosophy and belief system that a coordinator possesses with respect to adult learning permeates every aspect of a training program. If it is inconsistent with the goals and objectives of the training, participants will know it and will react accordingly. Boyle (1981) and Apps (1991) have provided some useful questions and categories for help in assessing one's beliefs and attitudes about the following four key areas: The Purpose of Adult Education o To promote changes in the way workers behave so their job performance is enhanced. o To encourage the growth and development of individual. o To assist adults to bring about change in societal norms and values. The Program Planning Process o Program planners should act as content experts and/or managers of the planning process, making sure all necessary tasks are completed. o Program planners should serve as coordinators and facilitators in the planning process, enabling all parties (such as participants, supervisors, funding sources) to have an active role. They also may be content experts. o Program planners should act as negotiators between and among the various groups involved in the planning process. They also may be content experts. Adults as Learners o Adults can and do want to learn regardless of age. o Adults have a rich background of knowledge and experience that should be used in the learning process. o Adults, for the most part, are pragmatic in their learning. They want to apply their learning to present situations. The Learning Process o Participants learn best when new information/skills build on past knowledge and experience. o Participants are more motivated to learn when a variety of teaching methods are used. o Participants learn both in independent, self-reliant modes and in interdependent and collaborative ways (Caffarella 1994). PROGRAM COORDINATION MUST BE ETHICAL Closely related to understanding one's personal beliefs and values regarding adult learning and program planning is the necessity for program planners to act in an ethical manner in coordinating every aspect of the training program. Ethics in this context means ensuring that the training is coordinated and carried out in a way that is completely consistent with its stated goals and objectives. The following passage effectively illustrates the close connection between understanding one's approach to adult learning and the need for ethical coordination of a learning program: Although most program planners do not take the time to spell out clearly and precisely their working philosophies, being cognizant of and acting on one's beliefs about program planning is critical in planning programs for adults. Adult learners and program sponsors are usually quick at making judgments about planners who espouse one set of beliefs and then act in opposition to those beliefs. For example, if potential program participants are asked for ideas for future programs, they want to see those ideas used; and if their ideas are not used, they want to know why (Caffarella 1994, 31). This may seem obvious to most people, but actually, ethics in program coordination can often be inadvertently overlooked. There are some "gray areas" that can prove troublesome, even for coordinators with the best of intentions. Some examples of unethical program behavior are: o Asking people to serve in an advisory capacity and then ignoring their advice. o Stating the goals and objectives of a training program and then not modeling those goals and objectives in the training itself. o Employing big-name presenters who draw crowds, even though their presentations may be neither relevant nor effective. o Using out-of-date resources because they are less expensive to obtain (Caffarella 1994). As a coordinator, you need to periodically assess your own ethics in program coordination. Although an ethical "disconnect" can be minor and seemingly insignificant, ultimately it will affect the overall quality of the training and the educational experience for participants, not to mention the level of trust that can be achieved between the participants and the training team. The specific details that go into the task of program coordination vary considerably from training to training. What is universally true about program coordination, however, is the fact that this process sets the tone for the training and ultimately, the quality of learning that will take place. Although the kinds of tasks and events that need to be coordinated by any program planner is discussed further in this chapter, the ongoing focus, as it is throughout this manual, is on the process of coordination and how, when performed effectively, this process interrelates and interacts with the overall training process as well as enhances and maximizes the learning environment and process. Program Coordination in Action In looking at the specifics of program coordination and how program coordinators contribute to the maximization of adult learning, it is useful to separate this process along a continuum, including: (1) pretraining coordination; (2) on-site coordination; and (3) posttraining coordination. During all phases of coordination, the ultimate coordinator operates from the standpoint of fulfilling the following two essential queries: 1. How can the training process and learning environment be enhanced and maximized for the benefit of participants and the training team? 2. How can the coordinator meet the needs of participants and the training team in the most effective way possible so that maximum attention can be focused upon learning? PRETRAINING COORDINATION This phase of program coordination is clearly the most comprehensive in laying the foundation and setting the tone for a successful training program. For purposes of this discussion, it is assumed that the underlying objectives and educational goals for the training program have already been clearly and comprehensively established. Generally, the major tasks to be accomplished during this phase include: o Determine training dates. o Select site. o Develop and manage training budget. o Negotiate contracts for training facilities and amenities. o Select meeting rooms. o Advertise the training. o Develop training resources. o Arrange for academic credit or other continuing education credits. o Select participants. o Identify any special needs of participants and/or faculty. o Communicate/coordinate with participants. o Select/invite faculty. o Coordinate with faculty. o Coordinate with facilities staff. o Liaison with program sponsor(s). o Schedule technical equipment and staff. o Develop training schedule and agenda. o Purchase/acquire training supplies/resources. o Oversee evaluation process. Determine training dates. Decisions about the training dates depend on the availability of the site that is to be used for the training, whether it is in-house or must be contracted outside the coordinating organization. If it is imperative that a particular site be used, then clearly the training dates will revolve around its availability. As much as possible, training programs should be scheduled during weekdays so as to not interfere with participants' off time on the weekends. If additional time is needed, a carryover into Saturday can be optimal, particularly for people who may be traveling from out of town and who may need to allow for Saturday night stayover airfares. Make sure to check that your selected training dates do not conflict with any holidays or religious observances. Part of being multiculturally sensitive is not just including such information in your training program, but ensuring from the start that the selected date does not conflict with participants' religious observances. In addition, be aware of other training programs and conferences already scheduled in your state or on the national level. For example, a statewide victim services training is scheduled for victim advocates; however, because the state prosecutors' annual meeting is also scheduled for the same time, prosecutor-based advocates are faced with the difficult choice of which program to attend. Finally, if key presenters are needed for the program's success, they should be "locked in" as early as possible (popular speakers may plan their schedules up to one year in advance). Select site. Assuming other factors regarding the training have not already predetermined its location (e.g., it is a component of a university program or offered by an organization with its own training facility), there are typically prerequisites to meet regarding the location and how it fits into the overall training scenario. The site and corresponding facilities directly affect the learning that takes place. Obviously, the most important spaces for participants are the meeting rooms, both the large meeting rooms and any other rooms that might be used for breakout discussions or other smaller group activities. There are essentially five different types of facilities that may be appropriate for adult training programs: 1. In-house organizational facilities. 2. Hotel and motel facilities. 3. Conference and retreat centers. 4. University and college facilities. 5. Resort areas (Caffarella 1994). Depending on the learning objectives and goals, and the purpose and nature of the training program itself, there are advantages and disadvantages to each type of facility and site. Considerations and objectives should be specifically set forth well before this stage so that it is perfectly clear what type of facility will best suit the needs of the training. If facilities require contracts, program coordinators must check them out thoroughly and never rely on verbal or written descriptions alone. A checklist of issues to think about in considering and selecting a site for a training includes the following: 1. Availability on program dates. 2. Costs. o Meeting rooms o Food (meals and breaks) o Lodging o Recreation o Audiovisual equipment 3. Location. o Safe and secure lighting o Barrier-free access o Convenience 4. Transportation convenience. o Public --Convenience --Frequency --Cost 5. Accessibility for people with disabilities. o Private rooms o Parking 6. Meeting rooms. o Size o Appearance o Lighting o Decor o Furnishings 7. Cleanliness. o Ventilation, heating, and cooling o Sound projection 8. Supporting Services. o Food o Accommodations/lodging o Recreation o Fitness facilities o Public telephone o Quality of service 9. Accessibility to medical services in cases of emergency. 10. General factors. o Attractions in the area o Experience in hosting/housing educational programs o Site personnel o Safety issues (Nadler and Nadler 1987; Vosko 1991; Munson 1992) Develop and manage training budget. The program coordinator is usually responsible for developing and managing the program budget for the training. This is a complex task and one whose specific details are beyond the scope of this discussion. Yet, in terms of the process of coordination, it is critical that the budget reflects the objectives and goals of the learning program and that it be well-planned and understood by all essential parties to the process. The ability to develop a sound budget for a training program is also an acquired skill, one that requires the coordinator to essentially anticipate every need that will arise before development of the training has even begun. Remember, you do not want to run out of money just when it is time to buy the coffee and doughnuts for breaks! The program budget is much more than a description of the dollar amounts that will be allotted to each program activity and resource. It is a comprehensive and detailed planning guide that can serve as a very useful check throughout every stage of the program. The planning necessary for creating a comprehensive and thorough budget will serve as the primary foundation of and assurance that all program goals and objectives will be met. An example of the budget categories used for the National Victim Assistance Academy is attached as Appendix E, Sample Budget. Negotiate contracts for training facilities and amenities. Anything that will be provided by the training facility itself (e.g., hotel, university, etc.) must be included in a written contract. This includes all arrangements regarding meeting rooms, sleeping rooms, meals, refreshments, equipment, and any other obligation the facility agrees to undertake. The art of negotiating favorable contracts is another skill that can be acquired through experience and thorough questioning of and research into all particulars of the facilities. You should be aware of the legal elements of a contract as well as the ramifications of signing a contract. Seek legal help if you are unsure about any aspect of the contractual process. Select meeting rooms. Meeting rooms are critical since they are the primary learning environments, defined by Finkel as "every space in a facility in which meeting activities occur and the degree to which every detail of those spaces can be designed to contribute to higher levels of learning" (Caffarella, citing Finkel 1984). This requires a great deal of attention to numerous details so as to ensure that the environment is conducive to participant learning and the overall effectiveness of trainers and instructors. In some cases, there will be no choice as to meeting rooms, such as a training held in-house in the only space large enough to accommodate participants. In such cases, the available space should simply be used to its best advantage. However, when there is a choice as to which meeting space can be used, the following summary of factors set forth by Caffarella (1994) offers some important considerations: o Access. Choose rooms that are barrier-free and accessible (ramps, elevator access, braille directions). o Room size. Avoid overcrowding and oversized rooms. o Room structure. The ideal room structure is square. Watch out for narrow rooms and posts in the wrong places. o Windows. Choose rooms with no windows or rooms whose windows can be completely covered. o Furnishings. Make sure tables and chairs are movable. Chairs need to be padded and provide good back support. o Adornments. Check to see whether pictures, sculptures, or other types of adornment can be taken down. o Lighting. Look for indirect, warm fluorescent lighting and rheostatic controls. Eliminate all sources of glare. o Temperature. Make sure you are able to regulate the temperature. Keep the temperature between sixty-five and seventy degrees. If you err, err on the cool side. o Ventilation. Keep the air circulating in the room. o Noise. Check for noise from heating and air-conditioning units in adjoining rooms, corridors, and outside the building. o Acoustics. Check on the bounce and absorption of sound. o Electrical outlets. Identify the location and type of outlets (for example, prong outlets). o Computer hookups. Check for telephone jacks that would allow for computer hookups. o Access to other areas. Check for easy access to restrooms, vending machines, eating facilities, etc. The way the meeting room is arranged has a tremendous impact on the quality and quantity of learning that takes place. It is crucial for the coordinator to understand the learning objectives and the kind of learning and interaction that will take place. For example, if you want to encourage and utilize group processing, the ideal arrangement is probably round tables, not classroom style rows. Tables should be arranged in a semi-circle around the presentation area. Moreover, you may need to allow for space for special equipment, such as computers, overhead projectors, or distance learning equipment. Smaller spaces lend themselves better to a more intimate learning environment; if you have no choice but to use a larger room, make arrangements to partition it or use the seating arrangement to create a smaller, more congenial learning environment. In larger meeting rooms, the emphasis is the same; although in a training of 100 or more people, you obviously will not have the same seating flexibility or opportunity for individual participant sharing. Again, the environment should be maximized to allow for as much participant involvement in the lesson as possible. Amphitheatre style seating arrangements (try to have tables or lap desks) can be effective when all participants have a good view and the acoustics are good. Make sure in larger meeting rooms that instructors and facilitators have the option of using microphones if they have trouble being heard by all participants. Hand held and clip-on microphones--particularly those without cords--can be especially helpful since they do not limit the speaker to one specific location. One final note on seating arrangements: If you are using a space off-site and are asked by the facility staff how you want the room arranged, be specific. Do not hastily describe what you have in mind, assuming that they have done this a hundred times before and so will know exactly what you want. A drawing is worth a thousand words, and a highly specific and detailed drawing even more. The room should be set up, if at all possible, the night before the training is to begin, and you should check it at that time to be sure it is the way you want it. Advertise the training. Depending on the type of training, there are many options for advertising the event to potential participants, including brochures, fliers, advertisements in trade magazines, online advertising via e-mail and Web sites, etc. Any advertisement should answer the basic questions of who, what, where, when, and why. Having a clear picture of the audience to be reached is the essential first step to any marketing campaign (Caffarella 1994, 174). The materials should be geared toward the target audience in such a way that potential participants are able to clearly understand requirements and/or prerequisites for the program. In keeping with the ethical approach to program coordination, it is critical that the coordinator, even a coordinator who is not involved with content aspects of the training, be keenly aware of the needs of the target audience. Since one of the primary tasks of any program coordinator is information broker, the coordinator must be familiar with what is being offered and how it can contribute to and enhance the professional experience and expertise of potential participants. For example, victim service professionals who call for information about the National Victim Assistance Academy (NVAA) are often interested in knowing how they might benefit from the training and whether their experience level is appropriate for them to be participants. While training announcements vary based upon length of the program and topics, etc., the core components to consider for advertising a program include: o Cover page that includes the title of the program, days, dates, location, and sponsorship. o Introduction/overview that highlights the reasons for the training (why participants should attend). o Conference/training goals. o Description of target audience. o Information about the training faculty (including brief credentials). o Information about conference resources available to participants (as well as opportunities for them to bring resources to share with others). o Answers to frequently asked questions, i.e. whom to contact for additional information via telephone, fax, e-mail, or Web site. o Training agenda/topics. o Registration and fees (if applicable). o Lodging and logistics (if applicable). o Dress code. o Registration form with details and deadlines for submission. o Academic credit or other continuing education/professional credit available to participants. Develop training resources. Responsibilities for the program coordinator in this area can vary considerably, from a primary and direct involvement in content to more of an oversight role. The development of resources for a training program is a major undertaking in and of itself, so the coordinator must understand that this task must be extremely well planned and carried out within clearly established deadlines and budget constraints. As with any other task in the process of coordination, the coordinator must identify staff and faculty members who have the expertise and availability to assist in the development of resource materials, and must coordinate all aspects of development and final production of the materials. The coordinator must also ensure the compliance of all training resources with any applicable Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements, e.g., closed-captioning for videotapes. Arrange for academic credit or other continuing education credits. Some training programs, like the NVAA, provide the opportunity for participants to receive credit, such as academic credit at the undergraduate and/or graduate levels, or continuing legal education or other allied professional education units. When this has been identified as an objective of a training program, the coordinator must initiate approval processes well in advance of the start date for the program. Approval processes for university academic credit, for example, vary from university to university and must typically go through several channels of approval before a final decision is made by the credit-granting university. Similar procedures exist for continuing professional education credits. The key to this task is to identify the university or other academic personnel who are the pertinent decision-makers for the credit issue and work closely with them to satisfy the requirements for making educational credit available to participants. It is also important to work closely with them to ensure that you thoroughly understand the requirements, both administrative and academic, that participants will need to satisfy in order to receive credit. Detailed and clear instructions regarding all aspects of educational credit should be sent to all participants along with their confirmation package. Select participants. Depending on the training requirements, participants may simply register, apply to attend, or may be required to attend due to professional standards/requirements or simply a supervisor's request. The impetus for attendance can be a major determining factor in how the participant feels about attending the training (e.g., coerced, thrilled, etc.) and how to market the training. Identify any special needs of participants and/or faculty. It is the role of the coordinator to become aware of any special needs of participants or faculty that will require accommodation during the training program. This information can be carefully elicited through the use of a registration form that encourages participants to list any special needs, and by personal communication with participants and faculty prior to the training program. When individuals express their special needs via a registration form, always contact them personally to discuss the specifics of the need(s) and ensure that you understand exactly what it will take to meet them. Special needs are as varied as are individuals, and almost all can be met as long as the coordinator becomes aware of them. Although the ultimate coordinator meets the special needs of all participants and faculty as a function of the participant-centered training process, it is important to remember that the ADA imposes legal requirements that must be met, in most training situations, with respect to individuals with disabilities. Arrangements for interpreters for deaf participants or special dietary needs for individuals with allergies or physical ailments, or ensuring the accessibility of facilities for individuals with disabilities can be easily accomplished as long as the coordinator is aware of the needs in advance. If a participant does not, for some reason, disclose a special need or accommodation before arriving on site, you must address that need as quickly and comprehensively as circumstances at that time will allow. Since most special needs must be arranged in advance, this underscores the need for personal communication with all participants well in advance of their arrival. Communicate/coordinate with participants. One of the best ways to start a training program off on the right foot is to be accessible and reliable for training participants prior to the program. Once the first contact is made with participants, the tone is set. Your objective as a coordinator is to establish a credible and trustworthy relationship well before the participants arrive. Once participants are confirmed for the training, they should receive an attractive and comprehensive package of information regarding the facilities, meals, dress code, schedules, what to bring, surrounding areas, and any other information they may reasonably need in order to be fully prepared to begin the training. If at all possible, you should communicate with each participant in person, by telephone or e-mail, approximately two weeks before the start of the training to ask about their arrangements and any special needs or questions they might have about the training or logistical issues. If calling or e-mailing each participant is not feasible, use a welcoming letter encouraging them to call or e- mail with any questions or concerns. Select/invite faculty. Selection criteria for faculty are determined by the training objectives and goals as well as by the planning committee. Faculty should receive a formal letter of invitation as well as all pertinent information about the training facility, accommodations, travel arrangements, etc. All expectations about faculty members' contributions to the curriculum and training should be clearly spelled out. Request a copy of their one-page vitae for introductions. Again, personal contact by telephone is important if possible, and you should make your contact information, including telephone and e-mail address available and accessible. Coordinate with faculty. A primary function of the coordinator is to ensure that any trainers' needs for their presentations, facilitation, etc. are met before they arrive at the training. It is a good idea to send a checklist of potential teaching aids (see list of teaching aids in Chapter 6, Ultimate Presentation), such as: o Tear sheets and multicolored markers with wide felt tips. o Data projector equipment. o VCR. o Overhead projector. o Any special items for a planned interactive activity (construction paper, poster boards, etc.). Just giving trainers the opportunity to inform you of their training needs helps to ensure that they are thinking about what they will need before they arrive. It is particularly important to be sure that any materials they may want reproduced for participants are taken care of before the training begins. Another item to check with faculty is whether they wish to use music and whether they will need an audio tape/CD player. If the training program involves many faculty members with a variety of slides and participant handouts, it's a good idea to obtain electronic versions of these in order to add a unified look. A uniform background on "powerpoint" slides, and matching "headers" and "footers" on both curricula and handouts, offers the appearance of a streamlined and coordinated approach. Coordinate with facilities staff. One important rule to keep in mind with regard to coordinating arrangements with facilities staff is--the squeaky wheel gets the grease! It is crucial, of course, to develop good and pleasant working relationships with facilities staff members, but it is equally crucial to stay in touch with staff so that your arrangements are not inadvertently rearranged for you due to unexpected or last minute changes at the training facility. Your best bet against this happening is to develop a strong working relationship with one primary contact at the facility and make sure he or she understands the underlying needs, objectives and goals of your training. Developing and maintaining an on-site ally are crucial components for success. Liaison with program sponsor(s). Serving as the liaison with the program sponsors is typically a responsibility of the program coordinator. Again, ethical program coordination is the primary objective: keep the program sponsor apprised of all developments and ensure that the goals and objectives of the training are clearly understood and being met by all parties. Schedule technical equipment and staff. Technical equipment, such as data projectors, VCRs, and microphones, must be scheduled well in advance to ensure its availability, as well as the availability of any necessary technical staff. This may require coordination with different personnel (e.g., a university with a separate media department) and budgetary considerations; so it is important to ascertain the appropriate contact as soon as possible. It is important to ensure that all technical equipment meets any ADA requirements that may be in place (e.g., television monitors must have the capacity to read close-captioned videos). Develop training schedule and agenda. Schedule and agenda development should be coordinated with the trainers and sponsors of the training program, incorporating the underlying goals and objectives of the training. The schedule should be based on adult learning principles, and therefore it is critical that the coordinator ensure that trainers rotate presentation formats. In fact, it's a good idea for coordinators to attend training programs periodically to remember what it's like to be at the mercy of a training schedule! Breaks for participants are very important, especially after sessions that are emotionally intense or otherwise taxing. To the degree possible, after-lunch sessions should be interactive and engaging, as participants begin to tire at this point. Try to stay within a typical workday schedule and maximize opportunities for participants to network with each other. "Topic" tables during meals and opportunities for optional evening get-togethers are appreciated by many participants. Since there is a tendency to cram too many topics and too much information into one day, the coordinator and planning team should prioritize topics. In addition, the ideal training schedule should not exceed six hours a day, allowing for an additional 75 minutes for lunch and 30 minutes for breaks. Purchase/acquire training supplies/resources. This includes everything you will need on-site (all training aids, participant prizes, refreshments, etc.) such as: o AV equipment. o Tear sheets. o Masking tape and other office supplies, such as scissors, stapler, pens, etc. o Construction paper, glue, glitter, or any supplies for projects the students may do. o Markers (at least four different colors; water-based for use on tear sheets). o Overhead transparencies and pens (these are particularly helpful for large audiences, where it may be difficult to see writing on tear sheets). o Post-it notes for students to post inquiries, requests, etc. o Audio tape/CD player and music for breaks, sessions. o Prizes for participants--silly/funny items and/or items that have meaning in their profession, e.g., victim services posters, videotapes, etc. o Candy for participants (great during breaks). o Camera and sufficient film (post pictures of the training while it is going on-- get double prints and let students take pictures they want). o Sufficient copies of everything you will be handing out to participants during the training, including resource materials and daily/overall evaluations. See Appendix B.1, Presentation "Tools of the Trade" for a comprehensive list of training aids. Oversee evaluation process. Evaluations, daily, overall, and follow-up, must be developed by the training team in accordance with the goals, learning modalities, and learning objectives of the program. All evaluation forms should be copied and ready for handing out on-site. Its helpful to use a different color paper for each day's evaluation forms so they can be easily sorted and organized. Remind participants throughout the training that evaluation forms are a major and essential method for obtaining feedback on the training and/or recommendations for change. Make sure that participants have adequate time to complete their evaluations and know where to put them when they are finished. ON-SITE COORDINATION Although the program coordinator and other staff have been working and planning for participants' maximum learning and comfort for the past three to twelve months (or more), this activity has not been very apparent to the arriving participants. What is extremely apparent is the level of organization that exists when the participants arrive at the meeting room on the day of the training. As Smith and Delahaye (1987) point out: Although most program participants are unaware of or indifferent to what went into planning a program, they are usually immediately cognizant of the details related to its on-site coordination; and they form opinions about the program based on those details. Until now the program coordinator has focused on preparing for the training. Now it is time to ensure that all preparations have been successfully completed and every precaution has been taken to keep things running smoothly during the training. As Knowles (1980) points out, "I am convinced that what happens in the first hour or so of any learning activity (course, seminar, workshop, institute, tutorial, etc.) largely determines how productive the remaining hours will be." Although it is to be expected that something will probably go wrong (remember Murphy's Law!), it is important to do everything possible to ensure that the participants enter a learning climate that is organized, energetic, fully participant-centered and ready for them. On-site coordination can be exhilarating, fun, and also challenging. It is the coordinator's primary responsibility to serve as a reliable support to the participants and training team in all three of the areas of need identified above: education/learning, physical, emotional. Even with the best of preparation, expect the unexpected. Air conditioning systems break down, faculty members have last minute emergencies and cancel, A/V equipment malfunctions. Such happenings are all in a day's work for the ultimate coordinator. A positive and upbeat attitude will accomplish more than any amount of agonizing over unforeseen events and/or problems. The coordinator must remain outcome- oriented and tend to such events as quickly and positively as possible. The mindset of the coordinator in the face of unexpected events will directly affect the experience of the participants; know that you set an example and make an invaluable contribution to the learning environment when you handle any and all training "glitches" with grace, dignity, diplomacy, speed, and humor. Major on-site tasks for the coordinator include: o Prepare final checklist of all arrangements. o Give final and clear staff assignments. o Complete registration materials. o Set up participant resource table. o Meet and greet participants. o Conduct orientation for participants. o Attend to all on-site needs throughout training. o Monitor learning environment and participant "moods." o Thank participants, faculty, and staff. o Develop a plan to respond to inquiries for follow-on information and resources. It is also good to keep in mind that the coordinator should and can enjoy the training. Being organized and staying on top of things should help you arrive at the training fully prepared for just about anything. The importance of arriving well rested cannot be overestimated. Prepare final checklist of all arrangements. As much as possible, everything that can be in place prior to the arrival of the participants should be. The following checklist includes items that should be finalized anywhere from one to seven days prior to the training program: ------------------------ Final Checklist for Participant-Centered Programs Items to be Checked: Points to be Considered for Each Item Facilities (meeting rooms for large and small-group sessions, meal areas, break areas, breakout rooms): o All facilities are accessible to persons with disabilities. o Lighting is adequate. o Ventilation is good. o Temperature is comfortable. o Layout of room (arrangement of tables and chairs, placement of equipment) is what was requested. Meals and breaks: o Menus reflect what was requested, and vegetarian and kosher options are available for every meal. o Final count of people for each meal and break is done. o Exact times for meals and breaks are established. Sleeping accommodations: o Reservations are in order for both participants and staff. o Rooms are clean, comfortable, and secure. Trainers and Program Staff: o All staff have a clear understanding of their roles and tasks. o All presenters, facilitators, and instructors are accounted for. Equipment: o The correct equipment is placed in the correct rooms. o All equipment is working properly. o Backup parts and equipment are available and easily accessible. Materials/Resources: o All items are complete and ready. o The number of copies allows for ten more copies than the number of participants). o The materials are arranged in order of use, or by day. Travel: o Transportation needs are provided for (travel to the site, on-siteparking for participants and staff, etc.) o Responsibility for assisting participants and/or program presenters with transportation is assigned. o Transportation needs, and for whom, is determined. Program Schedule/Agenda: o People have been assigned responsibilities for keeping theactivities on time. o Methods for keeping on schedule have been agreed upon. On-site Registration: o Procedures are clear and participant-friendly. o Available registration times are posted and have beencommunicated to participants. o Nametags and other registration materials are ready and arranged alphabetically. o Staff/trainers are available one hour prior to registration. Message Availability: o Procedures for participants receiving emergency messages whilein training have been established. o An emergency contact telephone number has been given to all participants prior to their arrival. o A staff person has been assigned responsibility for being the contact person for emergency messages. o Every participant has provided an emergency contact number at home to the coordinator. ------------------------ Give final and clear staff assignments. Staff assignments should be made regarding everything that needs to take place during the training program, from handing out evaluation forms to daily announcements to staying on schedule, etc. Literally anything and everything that needs to be handled by a staff member should be assigned beforehand to eliminate the possibility of confusion or disorganization. Complete registration materials. All registration materials, including folders, schedules, and nametags, should be neatly laid out and ready for participants to pick up at least one hour before the training begins. A staff member should be on hand to talk with participants as they pick up their materials and to answer any questions. Nametags and name plates should be alphabetized for easy access. The nametags should also feature large print that is easily read from a distance of ten feet. Set up participant resource table. Many training programs utilize one or more resource tables with current information, research, and publications pertinent to the professional affiliation of the participants. It is also useful to provide a table(s) for participants to leave materials about their own programs or other relevant resources. Meet and greet participants. If possible, the coordinator (as well as other trainers and staff) should personally meet and greet each participant individually. Inquire about their arrival, registration process, any difficulties they may have experienced, etc. Many participants feel anxious prior to the beginning of a training program. This is an excellent opportunity to begin breaking the ice, getting to know the participants, and introducing them to each other. Conduct orientation for participants. When opening a training, the coordinator or other trainer usually conducts a short orientation about what the participants can expect during their stay. This should cover logistical matters, meals, expectations of students and faculty, schedule issues and/or changes, and any other concerns. It should be as interactive and participant-centered as possible so that information flows in both directions. This is the first group opportunity to illustrate the training team's desire to meet the learning needs and expectations of the participants. It is good to keep the orientation session upbeat, fun, and short. Let the participants know that you are available at all times and interested in any feedback, comments, questions, or concerns they may have at any time. Attend to all on-site needs throughout training. This task sounds relatively simple, doesn't it? As coordinator, think of yourself as the host of a very large and complex party. All questions about everything from why the salad bar does not include anchovies, to where the overhead transparencies are for the Tuesday morning session, to why there are not extra blankets in the sleeping/hotel rooms, will probably be directed to you. Remember: All questions and inquiries are equally important and should be promptly and thoroughly investigated and resolved. Your preparation should have eliminated as much last minute confusion as possible. Yet no training program runs perfectly, and you can never anticipate all needs, particularly those of the participants on-site. You must be genuinely interested in responding and attending to the concerns of all participants and faculty; if you are not interested (or are perceived as not being interested), the maximum effectiveness of the learning environment may be compromised. Program coordinators should be available on-site and accessible at all times during the training. Monitor learning environment and participant moods. Coordinators must constantly monitor the learning environment to ensure that conditions are optimum. Is the temperature comfortable and consistent? Are participants comfortable with the seating arrangements? Are the refreshments delivered on time for breaks and is the quantity sufficient? Are speakers able to be heard clearly? Is all the equipment working properly? This is not only a last-minute check, but also a constant re-checking to ensure no glitches develop. It is also crucial to monitor participants' reactions to the program. Circulate during breaks and ask for feedback. Do participants have any concerns that need to be addressed through a group process that you can bring to the attention of other faculty members? Are there any participants who are having trouble with the material or perhaps reacting to some difficult or emotionally intense session? Let participants know you are there for them to handle any kind of feedback they may have, positive or negative. The learning environment and mood is a dynamic process--it is not something to be established at the beginning of a training and then forgotten. All potential problems can be handled, in one way or another, as long as the coordinator and entire training team remains participant-centered and aware. Thank participants, faculty, and staff. As part of the formal closing (more fully discussed in Chapter 8), honor the participants by acknowledging and thanking them for their participation and commitment during the training process. Where applicable, they should receive special certificates, with their individual names, for successfully completing the training program, signed by the program and organizational sponsors. Do not forget to thank staff and faculty for their invaluable contributions with a special token of appreciation or small gift. It is crucial to acknowledge the hard work and personal investment by all parties to the training as a form of closure. Develop a plan to respond to inquiries for follow-on information and resources. Prepare a sign-up sheet for participants to fill out if they wish to be put on future mailing lists and/or request additional or ongoing resources. Announce to participants that the sheet is available for sign-up throughout the training as well as where it will be located. POSTTRAINING COORDINATION Since the primary focus of this chapter is on the process of coordination and how it affects the quality of adult learning that takes place during a training program, the emphasis on post-training coordination is minimal except to point out the importance of some essential factors. Faculty debriefing. It is helpful to conduct a quick, on-site faculty debriefing to determine which training techniques and processes were effective, and which need improvement. A simple debriefing approach called "Alpha-Delta" can provide a "snapshot" of faculty assessments. Two-column charts can be prepared in advance, with the debriefing/evaluation topic on top, and "alpha" (things that went well) and "delta" (things that need improvement) in each of the columns. Typical topics for faculty debriefing include: o Content of training program. o Faculty (which requires a group commitment to honesty and open communication). o Curriculum and resource materials. o Schedule and time allotments for different subjects. o Training techniques. A summary report of the debriefing outcomes should be prepared and provided to all faculty. (See Appendix B.2, "Alpha-Delta" Faculty or Participant Debriefing.) Closing down the training. Coordinators must ensure that all items are packed up and all equipment that remains on-site is there and in the same condition it was when the training began. Make contact with any facilities personnel to thank them for their assistance as well as for final instructions regarding billing matters and/or equipment return. Make sure that all evaluations are collected and carefully packed up and returned so that the evaluation results can be properly recorded and summarized in an overall evaluation report for the program for the program sponsors and presenters. Finally, go home and take a well-deserved rest! Preparation of the evaluation report. One of the most essential elements for improving, refining, and further developing a training is the evaluation. The evaluation report should reflect the feedback of participants as literally as possible and be made as comprehensible and readable as possible for program sponsors, faculty, and staff. Follow-up evaluations should also be conducted with participants three to six months after the training has concluded to inquire about the impact the training has had upon them personally and professionally, and whether the learning objectives were successfully achieved and maintained. Follow-up communication with participants. All participants should have received a list of the students and faculty with all appropriate contact information (name, agency, mailing address, telephone, fax, e-mail, and Web site) so that they can communicate with one another after the training has concluded. The coordinator should send a letter to all participants thanking them again for their participation and perhaps enclosing a memento from the training, such as a certificate of completion (if not already received) or photograph of the participant taking part in the training program. Let students know that you are interested in all outcomes (what they do with the training they received) and would like to hear about ways they put their new knowledge to use, as well as any additional feedback they might have. A three- to six-month follow-up evaluation should be conducted so that the program sponsor, planning committee, and training team can learn specific ways that the training was useful and beneficial to participants, as well as any changes that should be made. The Ultimate Coordinator Is All Things to All People! The ultimate coordinator is, indeed, all things to all people, particularly during the training program. Although this philosophy cannot be carried out on a daily basis without exacting a major physical and emotional toll, it can and should be maintained by the coordinator during the training program. As much as possible and within human limits, program coordinators must be prepared to do everything within their power to keep the show running smoothly and to ensure that all conditions are in place, and kept that way, to allow for maximum adult learning. References Apps, J. W. 1991. Mastering the Teaching of Adults. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing. Boyle, P. G. 1981. Planning Better Programs. New York: McGraw-Hill. Caffarella, R. 1994. Planning Programs for Adult Learners. A Practical Guide for Educators, Trainers and Staff Developers. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1994. Finkel, C. 1984. "Where Learning Happens." Training and Development Journal, 38 (4): 32-36. Knowles, M. S. 1980. The Modern Practice of Adult Education. New York: Cambridge University Press. Munson, L. S. 1992. How to Conduct Training Seminars, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Nadler, L. and Z. Nadler. 1987. The Comprehensive Guide to Successful Conferences and Institutes. San Francisco: Jossey Bass Publishers. Smith, B. J. and B. L. Delahaye. 1987. How to Be an Effective Trainer, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley. Vosko, R. S. 1991. "Where We Learn Shapes Our Learning." In R. Hiemstra, ed., "Creating Environments for Effective Adult Learning." New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, (50), San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ---------------------------- Chapter 3. Ultimate Adult Learning Historical Roots of Adult Learning Principles Since the 1970s, adult learning theory has offered a framework for educators and trainers whose job it is to train adults. Malcolm S. Knowles (1973) was among the first proponents of this approach. In his book, The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species, he resurrected the word "andragogy" a term popular in German education circles in the early 1800s, and used it to label his attempt to create a unified theory of adult learning. Knowles' contentions were based on four assumptions: 1. As they mature, adults tend to prefer self-direction. The role of the instructor is to engage in a process of inquiry, analysis, and decision-making with adult learners, rather than to transmit knowledge. 2. Adults' experiences are a rich resource for learning. Active participation in planned experiences--such as discussions or problem solving exercises, an analysis of those experiences, and their application to work or life situations-- should be the core methodology for training adults. Adults learn and retain information more easily if they can relate it to their reservoir of past experiences. 3. Adults are aware of specific learning needs generated by real-life events such as marriage, divorce, parenting, taking a new job, losing a job, and so on. Adult learners' needs and interests are the starting points and serve as guideposts for training activities. 4. Adults are competency-based learners, meaning that they want to learn a skill or acquire knowledge that they can apply pragmatically to their immediate circumstances. Life or work-related situations present a more appropriate framework for adult learning than academic or theoretical approaches. Robert W. Pike (1989), an internationally recognized expert in human resources development and author of the book Creative Training Techniques, has conducted thousands of adult training seminars. His principles of adult learning, referred to as "Pike's Laws of Adult Learning," have built upon the original philosophy to provide similar guidance for trainers: Law 1: Adults are babies with big bodies. It is accepted that babies enjoy learning through experience, because every exploration is a new experience. As children grow, educators traditionally reduce the amount of learning through experience to the point that few courses in secondary and higher education devote significant time to experiential education. It is now recognized that adult learning is enhanced by hands-on experience that involves adults in the learning process. In addition, adults bring a wealth of experience that must be acknowledged and respected in the training setting. Law 2: People do not argue with their own data. Succinctly put, people are more likely to believe something fervently if they arrive at the idea themselves. Thus, when training adults, presenting structured activities that generate the students' ideas, concepts, or techniques will facilitate learning more effectively than simply giving adults information to remember. Law 3: Learning is directly proportional to the amount of fun you are having. Humor is an important tool for coping with stress and anxiety, and can be effective in promoting a comfortable learning environment. If you are involved in the learning process and understand how it will enable you to do your job or other chosen task better, you can experience the sheer joy of learning. Law 4: Learning has not taken place until behavior has changed. It is not what you know, but what you do that counts. The ability to apply new material is a good measure of whether learning has taken place. Experiences that provide an opportunity for successfully practicing a new skill will increase the likelihood of retention and on-the-job application. Adult Learning and the Ultimate Educator DESIGN AND DELIVER TRAINING FIRMLY GROUNDED ON PRINCIPLES OF ADULT LEARNING For more than two decades, adult learning theory has served as the framework for training adults. The idea that adults as learners require different educational strategies than children was first voiced fifty years ago when Irving Lorge (1947), writing about effective methods in adult education, suggested that to reach the adult learner, you have to teach to what adults want. He stated that adults have "wants" in the following four areas: 1. To gain something. 2. To be something. 3. To do something. 4. To save something. Eduard Lindeman, also writing in the 1940s, proposed that adults learn best when they are actively involved in determining what, how, and when they learn. Since the 1970s, several authors and training experts have expanded upon the original concepts presented as adult learning theory. Ultimate instruction, as used here, means helping adults to learn and involves far more than lecturing or presenting information. It involves instructing for results-- powerful, highly effective instruction that results in applicable learning for adult participants. The material presented here is intended as a guide for both new and experienced trainers and educators. The reader is encouraged to adapt these ideas and techniques freely and to modify them as necessary to compliment his or her unique style of instruction. You, too, can become an ultimate educator. KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ADULTS AND CHILDREN AS LEARNERS Adults differ from children as learners. An adult has assumed responsibility for himself/herself and others. Adults differ specifically in self-concept, experience, readiness to learn, time perspective, and orientation to learning. Traditional teaching applied to children is "jug and mug" with the big jug (the teacher) filling up the little mugs (the students). Students are asked to pay attention and have few opportunities to make use of their own experience (Klatt 1999). The following chart identifies some key differences between children and adults as learners: ------------------------ Child and Adult Learning Characteristics Children o Rely on others to decide what is important to be learned o Accept the information being presented at face value. o Expect what they are learning to be useful in their long-term future. o Have little or no experience upon which to draw, are relatively "blank slates." o Little ability to serve as a knowledgeable resource to teacher or fellow classmates. Adults o Decide for themselves what is important to be learned. o Need to validate the information based on their beliefs and values. o Expect what they are learning to be immediately useful. o Have substantial experience upon which to draw. May have fixed viewpoints. o Significant ability to serve as a knowledgeable resource to the trainer and fellow learners. ------------------------ INSTRUCTION BASED ON FIVE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ADULT LEARNING Leadership Experience Appeal Respect Novel Styles Often, peoples' expectations about the role of an instructor and beliefs about how adults learn are derived from personal experience in a college lecture hall or a job training program or from studying classical learning theories. However, learning in adult human beings seems to be a more complex phenomenon than some of the classical theories suggest. Three principles that provide the foundation for adult learning today can be summarized as follows: 1. The adult learner is primarily in charge of his or her own learning. Remember that instructors do not have the power to implant ideas or to transfer skills directly to the learner. They can only suggest and guide. 2. An instructor's primary responsibility is to do a good job of managing the process through which adults learn. 3. The learners are encouraged to use their own judgment and decision-making capabilities. Instructors are leaders, not dictators. They do have responsibility to make decisions, provide guidance, and be a resource for the students' learning. Although instructors often view themselves as the ultimate authority on the subject matter, it is still up to the learners to determine whether the ideas presented in the session should be incorporated into their work or personal lives. Despite the primary role of the learner, instruction is not a passive, laid- back, go-with-the-flow process for the instructor. As the facilitator and catalyst for participants' learning, the instructor makes it possible for learning to happen by designing and performing all the activities that the learning processes requires. In their research on adult learning, Sullivan, Wircenski, Arnold, and Sarkees (1990) assert that the establishment of a positive learning climate hinges on understanding the characteristics of adult learners who will be participating in the instructional process. They report the dynamics of the instructional process are very much dependent on the instructor having a clear understanding of the participants. Sullivan et. al. cited applicable characteristics of relevance, motivation, participation, variety, positive feedback, personal concerns, and uniqueness. Principle 1: Leadership. The adult learner enters the training or educational environment with a deep need to be self-directing and to take a leadership role in his or her learning. The psychological definition of "adult" is one who has achieved a self-concept of being in charge of his or her own decisions and living with the consequences; this carries over into the instructional setting. Thus, instructors can help learners acquire new knowledge and develop new skills, but they cannot do the learning for learners. Although adults may be completely self directing in most (if not all) aspects of their lives, some can fall back to their conditioning in school and college and put on their hats of dependency, fold their arms, sit back, and say "teach me" when they enter a program labeled "education" or "training." (This is especially true when adults enter a "training room" set up "classroom style.") To resolve the "dependency" problem, adult educators have developed strategies for helping adults make a quick transition from seeing themselves as dependent learners to becoming self-directed learners. Adult educators, in the development of a learning environment, define the process through which learning takes place. For example: o The instructor guides the learners in determining the relevance of the learning for their own lives and work; whereas, o The learners are encouraged to use their own leadership, judgment, and decision-making capabilities. To reinforce the notion of learner responsibility in the instructional process, a variety of activities can be used to obtain information from participants regarding what they want to get out of the session and to ensure a match between instructor and participant objectives. Information should be gathered from participants prior to the session to assess participants' skill levels, prior training, education, and professional experience and interest in, need for, and expectations for the session. This can be done through an application form, learning contracts, a mail (electronic or paper) survey of registered participants, or a brief telephone interview if the number of participants is small. This information can be used to organize instructional objectives, sequence content, and design-reinforcing activities. During an introductory section, participants can be asked to write down their most important goal for the session, and then be asked to share their expectations. Students are asked to put their comments regarding goals on a wall chart labeled "expectations" or "learning goals." Instructors can also ask participants to list the skills, experience, and positive characteristics they bring to the learning environment. This process honors participants, identifies participant resources for the group, and provides additional assessment data. The instructor can read goals from the sheet periodically throughout the session and indicate when a section is particularly designed to meet that learner's need, thereby reinforcing learner investment in the session. The ultimate educator remains alert to the first principle of adult learning: Adults enter the learning environment with a deep need to be self-directing and take a leadership role in his or her learning. Principle 2: Experience. The word "experience" holds two meanings for the ultimate educator. Experience is the accumulated knowledge an individual arrives with at the session, as well as an individual's active participation in events or activities during the session. Adults bring to a learning situation a background of experience that is a rich resource for themselves and for others. In adult education, there is a greater emphasis on the use of experiential learning techniques (discussion methods, case studies, problem-solving exercises) that tap into the accumulated knowledge and skills of the learners and techniques such as simulation exercises and field experiences that provide learners with experiences from which they can learn by analyzing them. A rich, adult-focused instructional approach takes into account the experiences and knowledge that adults bring to the session. It then expands upon and refines this prior knowledge by connecting it to new learning, making the instruction relevant to important issues and tasks in the adults' lives. In discussing what all learners have in common, Robert F. Mager (1992) stated that the more you know about participants, the better you can tailor instruction to meet their needs. He provided the following list of key points concerning experience: o Everyone comes to the learning situation with a lifetime of experience, regardless of age. o The lifetime experiences of each learner are different from those of others. o Lifetime experiences also includes misconceptions, biases, prejudices, and preferences. In other words, some of what people think they know is actually wrong. It is also important to recognize that the experience that adults possess is significantly different in quality from that of youths: o Few youths have had the experience of being full-time workers, spouses, parents, voting citizens, organizational leaders, or other adult roles. Accordingly, adults have a different perspective on experience: it is their chief source of self-identity. o To youths, experience is something that happens to them, whereas adults define themselves in terms of their unique experiences. o An adult's experience is who he or she is. So if an adult's experience is not respected and valued, it cannot be used as a resource for learning. Adults experience this omission as a rejection of their experience and as a rejection of them as persons, which negatively affects learning. Few individuals prefer to just sit back and listen to a teacher or trainer go on and on about the topic. The effective instructor keeps this point in mind and designs learning experiences that actively involve adults with various levels of experience in the instructional process. This entails practice activities such as discussion, hands-on work, or projects for each of the concepts that the instructor wants the participants to master. Concentration is also an important issue. Humans can only consciously think about one thing at a time. It is essential to provide learning environments that help learners concentrate on their learning tasks. Contents, formats, and sequences must be interesting to compete with other attention-demanding thoughts and environmental intrusions (McLagen 1978). Boud, Keogh, and Walker (1985) found that adults have a broader base of experience to which new ideas and skills can be attached; furthermore, a broader experience base allows adults to incorporate new ideas and skills with much richer and fuller meaning than do youths. The more clearly defined the relationship between the old and the new (through discussion and reflection), the deeper and more permanent the learning will be. For example: o On-the-job training, small group discussions, case study work, or even computer-based training all embrace the concept that participation helps increase involvement in the learning process and retention of the knowledge. Information that goes into the participant's memory will likely be remembered if learners practice remembering the information soon after they process it. Therefore, it is important to provide opportunities in the session for review and remembering by means of activities like written summaries, application exercises, and discussions (Zemke and Zemke 1995). Studies show that over a period of three days, learning retention is as follows: o 10% of what you read. o 20% of what you hear. o 30% of what you see. o 50% of what you see and hear. o 70% of what you say. o 90% of what you say as you do (e.g., orally work out a problem) (Pike 1989). The ultimate educator knows that experience is a rich resource for adult learning and therefore actively involves adults in the learning process. Principle 3: Appeal. Appeal is the power of attracting or arousing interest. Adult learners are motivated to learn when they have a need to know. They want to know how the instruction will help them and often ask themselves the following questions: o What's in it for me? o Why do I need this information? o How will I benefit from it? o How can I make use of it in a practical, real way? o How will it help me be a better person or professional? Training and development expert Robert F. Mager (1992) brings this point home with his first two rules of training: o Rule #1: Training is appropriate only when two conditions are present: --There is something that one or more people do not know how to do. --They need to be able to do it. o Rule #2: If they already know how, more training won't help. Adult orientation to learning is centered on life or work. Therefore, the appropriate frameworks for organizing adult learning are life and/or work- related situations, not academic or theoretical subjects. Meaningful learning can be intrinsically motivating. The key to using adult's "natural" motivation to learn is tapping into their most teachable moments: those points in their lives when they believe they need to learn something new or different (Zemke & Zemke 1995). Sometimes, adults enter the learning environment with little interest or motivation. Many genuinely want to improve their job performance or to learn new knowledge and skills in order to move up the career ladder. Their motivation can diminish if the instructor fails to direct and encourage this or other interests and motivations. Trainers can help learners develop an early and appropriate "mental set" for learning programs by overviewing the course objectives, describing upcoming activities, and helping them see the future advantages of the instruction to them and their work (McLagen 1978). Introductory exercises early in the session can help establish the mental set. For example, an exercise titled "hopes and fears" allows participates the opportunity to express their learning goals and concerns. In this exercise, participants are instructed to write down on tear sheets their hopes (goals and desires) and fears (concerns and specific issues about the instructional session), individually or in small groups. The instructor then uses this information to ensure that instructional objectives are on the mark and that the instructor is sensitive to individual participants. Motivation can be improved and channeled by the instructor who provides clear instructional goals and learning activities that encourage and support strong learner interest. To best capitalize on this high level of learner interest, the instructor should explore ways by which the needs of each learner can be incorporated into the training sessions. This would include: o The use of challenging and exciting learning experiences. o Learning activities that are self-paced and tailored to individual rates of learning. Five Ways to Squelch Motivation o Have little personal contact. o Get participants in a passive mood and keep them there. o Assume the class will apply what is taught; do not bother with examples. o Be alert to criticize. o Make them feel stupid for asking questions in class (Pike 1992). Studies show that part of an adult's preparation to learn is determining the benefits of the learning, as well as the disadvantages of not learning. Allen Tough (1972) found that adults would expend considerable time and energy exploring the benefits of learning something, and what the costs would be of not learning it before they would be willing to invest time and energy in learning it. Therefore, a key principle in adult learning is that the ultimate educator needs to develop an appeal, a "need to know" in the learners--to make a case for the value in their life performance of learning what is offered. At the minimum, this case should be made through testimony from the experience of the instructor or a successful practitioner; at the maximum, by providing real or simulated experiences through which the learners experience the benefits of knowing and the costs of not knowing. Principle 4: Respect. The word respect here is defined as "esteem." The instructor of adults must show deferential regard for the learner by acknowledging an adult learner's experience and creating a climate in the learning setting that conveys respect. People are more open to learning if they feel respected. If they feel that they are being talked down to, patronized, or otherwise denigrated, their energy is diverted from learning to dealing with these feelings. The following suggestions are offered as ways in which the instructor can help foster a comfortable, productive learning climate through the attitude that he or she projects: o Show respect for the learner's individuality and experience. o Be sensitive to the language you use so that learners are not inadvertently offended. o Be open to different perspectives. o Adopt a caring attitude and show it. o Treat the learners as individuals rather than as a group of people who are all alike. o Support all learner comments by acknowledging the "rightness" that is in each comment and each person. o Take the learning process seriously because it is serious and important (McLagen 1978). Establish a learning climate of: o Mutual respect. o Collaboration rather than competition. o Support rather than judgment. o Mutual trust. o Fun. Adult learners respond to reinforcements. Although adult learners are usually self-directed, they do need to receive reinforcement. Most people are like dry sponges waiting for a drop of appreciation. Instructors should take every opportunity to demonstrate appreciation in the classroom. Sullivan, Wircenski, Arnold, and Sarkees (1990) write that the need for positive feedback is a characteristic of the adult learner. Like most learners, adults prefer to know how their efforts measure up when compared with the objectives of the instructional program. Adults have a tendency to "vote with their feet"; that is, if they find the program to be a negative experience, they will find some reason to drop out of the program before its completion. The ultimate educator honors adult learners' individuality and experience and creates a safe, respectful, and participant-centered environment for learning to take place. Principle 5: Novel Styles. The last principle refers to individual or novel styles that characterize learners. Novel styles are defined as different, unique learning styles and preferences. Generally, most adults prefer to be treated as individuals who are unique and have particular differences. The instructor must keep in mind that although adults have common characteristics as learners, adults also have individual differences and most adults have preferred methods for learning. Adult learners respond better when new material is presented through a variety of instructional methods, appealing to their different learning preferences. No matter how well planned a program is, individual differences among participants often make it necessary to make some adjustments during the program. Flexibility can be incorporated into programs, but such flexibility must be grounded in an understanding of how learners may differ. When developing an instructional program, the instructor must take into consideration the novel styles of learning that each adult brings to the session. The following section discusses a variety of approaches to learning style. Learning Style Most adult learners have developed a preference for learning that is rooted in childhood learning patterns. To understand and address adult learners, it is important to understand differences in children's development and learning. As children develop, their ability to process information is affected by their own individual strengths and weaknesses and the environment in which they grow and learn. Individual differences in children's interests, aptitudes, abilities, and achievement can be quite pronounced. For example, some children have an especially strong auditory memory that enables them to remember what they hear with little effort, while others may be less skilled. This can be seen in differences in following verbal directions given by a teacher or coach, or in the ability to learn the words to a new song. Some children have an especially keen eye for noticing detail in pictures or a design in a pattern. This can be seen in differences in speed in recognizing letters of the alphabet or understanding principles of geometry. Some children are very talented artists from the first moment they are given crayons or other tools to draw, while others develop such a skill through structured learning opportunities at school and at home. Behavioral characteristics can also affect learning in children. Children may have a short attention span or be easily distracted by sounds or movement around them, while others can stay with a task for a lengthy period of time, regardless of what might be going on around them. Some children appear more "emotionally mature," which can translate into greater patience, ability to cooperate, or a higher tolerance for frustration, while others become upset quickly if a task is frustrating. Some children have a "need to move" or be more active than is typical for their age group; others simply have more stamina, and so on. In addition, stimulation and opportunity can affect ability and achievement. If a child is deprived of opportunities to move, explore, touch, grasp, and/or interact with sound and speech, long-term learning ability is diminished. Furthermore, without opportunities to use once learned skills, the ability to perform tasks is often lost and must be relearned. It must be emphasized that adult learning theory is based in the notion that we are not "just teaching grown-up children." It must be recognized that a person's aptitudes and abilities are shaped by individual differences and early learning experiences and continue to be influenced by experience and training throughout adulthood. In fact, many adults seek jobs that consistently give them opportunities to display special talents and rely upon their preferred learning style. ADULT LEARNING STYLES (Portions of the following section were excerpted with modification from National District Attorneys Advocacy Center, Train the Trainers Workshop, 1999.) In adult learning theory, several approaches to learning style have been developed and are prominently used in training and educational programs. These include learning styles based on the senses that are involved in processing information; theories of intelligence, including emotional intelligence and "multiple intelligences"; and preferences for learning conditions, i.e., the environment in which learning takes place. In order to provide a framework for a discussion on adult learning style differences, each of these approaches is briefly discussed. Auditory, visual, and kinesthetic learners. Differing aptitudes, abilities, and experiences have caused individuals to develop a preference for sending and receiving information through one sense over another. Most often people prefer auditory or visual input; however, some people have a preference for kinesthetic learning, i.e. learning that involves movement. A preference for one type of learning over another may be seen in the following ways: o Visual learners prefer, enjoy, or require: Graphic illustrations such as bar graphs or crosstabs to explain data; color codes to highlight salient information; maps to find their way on the subway or while driving in a new city; written material to study new concepts; wall charts that display points to be remembered; written outlines; drawings or designs to illustrate overhead presentations; sitting "up close" in a presentation in order to see the presenter's face, gestures, or visuals; taking notes during a lecture; instructors to repeat verbal directions. o Auditory learners prefer, enjoy, or require: A verbal presentation of new information, such as a lecture; group discussions to hear other points of view or practices; fast-paced verbal exchanges of ideas; a good joke or story that they can repeat for others; verbal cues or pneumonic devices to help them remember information; music at the beginning or during transitions in a training setting; words to accompany a cartoon; oral reports of working groups. o Kinesthetic learners prefer, enjoy, or require: Movement, such as rocking or shaking a leg during a lecture; hands-on experience to learn a task; gestures while making a point; role play exercises over discussion groups; shaking hands when meeting or greeting people; trying new things without a lengthy explanation of the activity; frequent breaks; regular opportunities to change seating or room arrangement; "just doing it" rather than talking about it. While it is thought that people have developed a preference for or have greater skill in processing one type of input over others, most people simultaneously process information through multiple senses. In fact, the retention of learned material is enhanced if the learner is asked to process information using more than one sense. Presentations that are multisensory (using visual and auditory components) in combination with interactive activities will increase learning and retention for most adults. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (Portions of the following section were excerpted with modification from National District Attorneys Advocacy Center, Train the Trainers Workshop, 1999.) Intelligence has long been considered a key factor in predicting and evaluating learning. Educators have developed a variety of teaching strategies to accommodate varying levels of intelligence, most of which have been based on a traditional Western approach to intelligence. Theories of adult intelligence have evolved considerably in recent decades. The traditional constructs of IQ (intelligence quotient) derived from verbal and nonverbal intelligence have been expanded to include EQ (emotional quotient, suggesting that emotional maturity and ability contribute significantly to achievement), as well as theories of "multiple intelligences." Howard Gardner (1982), a proponent of "multiple intelligences" theory, suggests that educators do people a disservice by thinking of intelligence levels in traditionally narrow dimensions that relate most significantly to academic achievement. Gardner proposes seven broader dimensions of intelligences: o Verbal and linguistic. Ability to deal with words and language, both written and spoken. o Logical and mathematical. Ability to do inductive and deductive thinking, numbers, abstract patterns, and reasoning ability. o Musical. Ability to recognize tonal patterns, pitch, melody, rhythms, and tone. o Kinesthetic. Ability to use the body skillfully. o Visual and spatial. Ability to observe and process visual stimuli and visualize or create visual images. o Interpersonal. Ability to develop and maintain relationships and understand, communicate, and work with other people. o Intrapersonal. Understanding of self and one's own feelings, values, and purpose. Many instructors have found applications for this new way of defining intelligence or aptitude. In general, the instructors have utilized this theory to support the notion that instruction should entail far more than a verbal/linguistic presentation of ideas, and include experiential opportunities that enable people with varying types of "intelligence" to be successful. Learning Environment Conditions Affect Learning The physical environment in which instruction takes place and the structure of the activities in the course can also affect learning positively or negatively. People react differently to such factors as room temperature, arrangement of the room (e.g., closeness of seats), time of day (early morning versus late in the day), brightness of the lighting, and sound (e.g., noise distractions from nearby construction or talking among participants). In addition, adults differ with regard to whether they prefer to work alone or in groups. Sharon Fisher (1989) has combined all of these factors to depict the various types of preferences that adults may have when they enter the learning environment: ------------------------ Adult Preferences Regarding a Learning Environment Physical Factors o Learning Setting: -- Noise Level --Lighting --Temperature --Structure --Time of Day Emotional Factors o Social Needs: --Learn Alone --Learn with Others o Motivation: --Extrinsic --Intrinsic Learning Factors o Learning Styles: --Auditory --Visual --Kinesthetic ------------------------ An instructor must recognize that adults' preferences in these areas may affect their responsiveness in the session. Efforts should be made to accommodate differences by providing a variety of learning activities in which participants may feel comfortable. The ultimate educator delivers instruction in a stimulating, rich, and diverse environment through a variety of instructional methods to appeal to adult participants' learning styles and preferences. The Ultimate Educator Is an Adult Learning Expert! Adult learning theory is grounded in the notion that adults are in charge of and need to be active participants in their learning. Adults bring a wide range of experiences and perspectives to any instructional setting, and are most likely to be motivated when they see a connection between the learning objectives and activities and their own work or life. Adults also bring preferences for how they learn as well as varying aptitudes and abilities. Ultimate educators provide opportunities for adults to use what they already know and apply what they are learning in the instructional setting. References Gardner, H. 1982. Art, Mind and Brain. New York: Basic Books. Klatt, B. 1999. The Ultimate Training Workshop Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide to Leading Successful Workshops & Training Programs. New York: McGraw-Hill. Knowles, M. 1973. The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company. Lorge, I. 1947. Effective Methods in Adult Education: Report of the Southern Regional Workshop for Agricultural Extension Specialists. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State College. Mager, R. F. 1992. What Every Manager Should Know about Training. Belmont, CA: Lake Publishing Company. McLagen, P. A. 1978. Helping Others Learn: Designing Programs for Adults. MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. National District Attorneys Advocacy Center. 1999. Train the Trainers Workshop. Columbia, SC. Pike, R. W. 1989. Creative Training Techniques Handbook. Minneapolis, MN: Lakewood Books. Tough, A. 1972. Adult Learning Projects. Ontario: Institute for Studies in Education. Zemke, R. and S. Zemke. June 1995. "Adult Learning What Do We Know for Sure?" Training. ---------------------------- Chapter 4. Ultimate Style and Skill Introduction Beginning with your first academic experiences, you have recognized differences among teachers--some were great; some put students to sleep. Many years later, with a greater focus on improving your own abilities, you attended training sessions, observed and rated the instructors, and questioned whether or not you would be able to replicate the actions and styles that you felt were most effective. You observed and studied all types of trainers, educators, and facilitators; afterward you said, "I can do that, but I can't do that!" The more the instructor seemed like you, the more comfortable and confident you felt in trying out new innovative techniques. What you experienced was a "style identity crisis." You compared and contrasted your own personal style and abilities with those of the instructor. You wondered if you measured up. You questioned whether you could change to become more dynamic and effective. The ultimate educator is a risk taker, willing to try out new techniques that push the envelope, and willing to accept the challenge to become the "best of the best." This chapter can help you assess your skills and polish your style so you can become an ultimate educator! Style Stereotypes Before you assess your own style, take a look at some styles you may recognize. Maybe you will see yourself in these pages! Behind each of the following styles is an assumption that may affect the learners in a negative way and impede their learning. Although the assumptions behind the styles are exaggerated, they reveal the implications of the style and may help you become more aware of the impact of a style that you have adopted or thought was effective. THE SCHOLARLY PROFESSOR "Listen to me, take good notes, you learn by paying attention to me. I am the expert--you will be tested on what I say." The professor uses lecture as the primary method of delivery. Written tests are the most common type of assessment. Contact with students is minimal; he or she arrives just before the session and leaves immediately after. The training is instructor-centered; what the instructor says is important. The professor style implies that the trainer's approval, not the learners' subsequent performance, is the goal of learning. Students' thoughts and opinions are not important. THE CLOWN "I'll make you laugh and entertain you. I have a story and joke for all occasions! You may not learn anything, but you'll like me and have a great time!" The clown tells jokes and entertaining stories. Training success is measured by "smiles," not performance. The clown is everyone's friend; impression is important. The training is instructor-centered; the instructor wants you to like him/her. The clown is often a very popular trainer; participants are satisfied and may, at first, not notice that actual learning was limited or nonexistent. The clown style implies that "entertainment" is the goal of training--learning is not important. THE TECHNO TRAINER "The technological wizardry will captivate you! With videos, presentation software, and other high-tech gadgets, I will cover everything you need to know. I hope the power doesn't go out!" The techno-trainer takes a back seat to the technology. The trainer relies on the technology to accomplish the training. Testing is based solely on information delivered by technology. Contact with participants is minimal, and not necessary. Students are not actively involved in the learning process. If the technology fails, the training fails! The techno style implies that the trainer's role is simply to provide information, not to help participants learn. THE CHEERLEADER "I'll fire you up! You'll be inspired, motivated, eager to go out and conquer the world! Give me a "T"; give me an "R"; give me an "A"; give me an "I"; give me an "N"; give me an "E"; give me an "R"--what's that spell? TRAINER!" The cheerleader relies on high energy and inspirational exercises to move participants to action. Training success is measured by the level of excitement generated by the instructor. Contact with participants is extreme. Learning and subsequent performance are less important than participant excitement (that eventually fades). The trainer depends on diffuse excitement versus directed motivation based on learner desire and need. The cheerleader style implies that excitement will lead to performance. THE DRILL INSTRUCTOR "Do you hear me, trainee? You will listen to me, do what I say, and keep quiet! I don't care what you think or feel; it's what I think and feel that's important! Got that, trainee?" The drill instructor is in total control of the learning environment--the trainer's goals are the only goals considered. The trainer believes that he/she must "whip" participants into shape. Training success is measured by the participants' ability to replicate the instructor's actions to his or her satisfaction. Repetition is the primary teaching strategy. Participants are made to feel stupid when asking questions or demonstrating performance that is less than satisfactory. The drill instructor style implies that the participant is a moron, incapable of independent thought or action. While the above styles were exaggerated, the implications are clear. Do you see your style in these descriptions? What does your style "say" to participants? (The preceding training styles are adapted from F. Margolis and C. Bell, Instructing for Results.) Communication Style Your dominant communication style also affects your training effectiveness. John Bledsoe (1976) outlined four communication styles based on Carl Jung's psychological types: intuitor, thinker, feeler, and sensor (more fully described in the following chart). Every trainer and participant uses a blend of the four behavioral styles. Despite using a blend or mix, each person relies most heavily on a primary or dominant style. While no style should be considered good or bad, trainers should identify their own style and be able to identify the styles of training participants. With this awareness, you can adjust your style to communicate most effectively with participants. What is your communication style? Study the following chart and see if you can identify your primary style. ------------------------ Training Styles and Characteristics Primary Communicating Styles Intuitor o Typical Telephone Behavior: Wordy but aloof. Impersonal. Goes off on tangents. Not mindful of your time or his/her time. o Typical Office Decor or Surroundings: Imagination in selection of new wave furnishings and decor. Round conference tables, inspiration-pads on walls, offbeat periodicals. Citations for idealistic work, community service and pet causes. o Typical Style of Dress: Hard to predict. May be like an absent-minded professor. More into ideas than image. May be too wrapped up in future goals to think about daily appearance. Alternately, may have imaginative self-concept that may reflect in clothes from stunning to outlandish. o Associated Characteristics: Effective --Original --Imaginative --Creative --Broad gauged --Charismatic --Idealistic --Intellectually tenacious --Ideological Ineffective --Unrealistic --"Far-out" --Fantasy --Scattered --Devious --Out-of-touch --Dogmatic --Impractical Thinker o Typical Telephone Behavior: Business-like, but lackluster. Little voice inflection. Ticks off specifics. Ordered, measured manner. Sometimes suggests ground-rules for phone conversation, i.e., "Shall we begin with your agenda or mine?" o Typical Office Decor or Surroundings: Correct and nondistracting. Furnishings that are tasteful but conventional. Charts for business use, reports, and reference works nearby. Few touches of informality and color. o Typical Style of Dress: Conservative "proper." Unassuming, understated. Dress invariably appropriate to circumstance. Business-like in office; well tailored, correct in nonwork atmosphere. Color-coordinated, but not colorful. o Associated Characteristics: Effective --Effective communicator --Deliberate --Prudent --Weighs alternatives --Stabilizing --Objective --Rational --Analytical Ineffective --Verbose --Indecisive --Over-cautious --Over analyzes --Nondynamic Controlling Over-serious --Rigid Feeler o Typical Telephone Behavior: Warm and friendly, sometimes seemingly too much so. Does not seem to distinguish between business and personal calls in the sense that he/she is likely to be quite informal. Interjects humor, personal associations, questions about one's well being, etc. Likes to gossip. Talks incessantly. Feels rude if hangs up fast. o Typical Office Decor or Surroundings: Personalizes surroundings; makes office informal and somewhat "homey." Likes warm colors, antiques, big, live plants, mementos, snapshots rather than formal photographs of family. Papers and files, etc., are likely to be messy on the surface, organized underneath in a personal way that only he/she can understand. o Typical Style of Dress: Dress is more according to own mood than to suit others' expectations. Likes colorful, informal clothes. Often has sentimental, favorite articles of clothing. Sometimes shows a hankering for old-fashioned touches or "costume" effects. o Associated Characteristics: Effective --Spontaneous --Persuasive --Empathetic --Grasps traditional values --Probing --Introspective --Draws out feelings --Loyal Ineffective --Impulsive --Manipulative --Over personalizes --Sentimental --Postponing --Guilt-ridden --Stirs-up conflict --Subjective Sensor o Typical Telephone Behavior: Abrupt. Staccato. Gets to the point; expects others to do the same. Interrupts. Needs to control the conversation. o Typical Office Decor or Surroundings: Generates atmosphere of hard- charging clutter. Mementos, if any, connote action: heads of animals hunted, golf trophies, mounted fish, racing prints. Desk is likely to be big, messy. Too busy to be neat; too action-oriented to be concerned with image unless she/he has a strong thinker back-up style. o Typical Style of Dress: Informal, simple, functional clothes are not the order of the day. Wants to be neat but not fancy. Tends to categorize; everyday or dress-up. If sensors see the occasion as being "special," they throw simplicity to the winds; their competitive zeal then rises to the surface and they may "outclass" everyone. o Associated Characteristics: Effective --Pragmatic --Assertive --Directional, results-oriented --Objective --Competitive --Confident Ineffective --Does not see long-range --Status-seeking --Self-involved --Acts first, then thinks --Lacks trust in others --Domineering, arrogant ------------------------ As the above table illustrates, it can be fun to stereotype and exaggerate descriptions of training and communicating styles. However, it is important to become and remain aware of how your style may affect your students' learning process. The next section explores specific skills that constitute the trainer's repertoire and gives you an opportunity to assess your skills and develop a plan of improvement. Trainer Skill Assessment What makes a good trainer? "Train the trainer" literature looks at this question in a variety of different ways from "presage and process variables" to "stand-up skills." Some experts focus on what instructors must do to provide effective instruction. Other experts look at leadership, presenting, facilitating, and other "stand up" skills important for successful instruction. This section begins with a look at what differentiates a "successful" trainer from the pack and finishes with an examination of specific skills for effective instruction. SUCCESSFUL INSTRUCTORS o Students fully understand what is expected of them. o Objectives are clearly stated. o Instruction is based on learner needs and wants. o Students are given the opportunity to practice. o Students are given immediate feedback. o Students are treated with respect. o Students are the most important people in the classroom. o Students are valued. Frank O'Meara (1996) provides ten rules for novice trainers to assist them in getting off on the right foot as trainers. His rules are also a reminder to veteran trainers to keep their attention focused where it belongs--on the learners. These rules will not make you an instant successful trainer, but may help you avoid some training pitfalls. 1. Change your shoes. Imagine yourself as a member of your audience, see the subject from your learners' point of view. 2. Get your act together. Know your stuff. 3. Loosen up. Hang loose and smile. 4. Un-complicate it. Express your ideas in the simplest possible language. 5. Put it on ice. Motivate your participants to make them feel it is their program. 6. Vary your pitch. Be comfortable with several different teaching techniques so as to maintain and renew interest and participation during the day. 7. Let George do it. Until they tell you, show you, and do it themselves, they have not acquired the knowledge or mastered the skill you want them to learn. 8. Play it again, Sam. Repetition is the mother of learning. 9. Accentuate the positive. Be patient and positive in trying to ensure each individual's comprehension and proficiency. 10. Get a receipt. The point of your training session is to make sure participants know what they are supposed to know. Bruce Klatt (1999) writes that while most people think of "delivery skills" such as presenting, leadership, and facilitating as the most important factors to consider when assessing trainers, they are not as important as a trainer's background, experience, attitude, and development. He asserts that the basics of workshop leader success are: o Be technically competent in your field. o Bring who you are to what you do as a workshop leader. o Be informed and care about your participants. o Continuously develop yourself and your workshop or training program. Also writing about workshop leadership, Garry Mitchell (1993) says like it or not, the trainer/educator is the authority figure during the session. The learners give you this power. He states that the trainer must assume it; you have no choice! Mitchell lists ten leadership roles critical to successful instruction: 1. Setting the agenda and keeping track of time. 2. Maintaining training objectives. 3. Protecting the rights of all participants. 4. Listening. 5. Summarizing the material. 6. Reviewing. 7. Focusing the attention of the group. 8. Handling challenges to your authority. 9. Involving silent members. 10. Providing a modus operandi (be decisive, never apologize, avoid confrontation, move in and solve problems as soon as they become apparent). How many of the behaviors of successful instructors do you demonstrate in your training sessions? Recognizing the actions "successful" instructors take to deliver effective training is helpful as you look to add to your bag of training tricks. Some specific instructor skills and behaviors important for effective teaching are identified in the following section. TRAINER SKILLS Caldwell and Marcel (1985) surveyed trainers to identify the behaviors or characteristics that they considered essential to effective teaching. The survey results were organized into trainer evaluation forms for "presage" and "process" variables. Presage variables are the characteristics that an instructor brings to the teaching situation. They influence the learning process but are not as much a part of the instructor's performance as process variables. Assess yourself on presage variables, i.e. what do you bring to your training sessions? o Knowledge of subject matter. o Good speaking ability. o Enthusiasm, positive attitude. o Well prepared, good organization. o Depth of understanding. o Poise, confidence. Process variables. Behaviors that are evident and easily observed in the actual presentation of a lesson are process variables. Assess yourself on process variables: o Keeps control of class (does not allow students to get off the subject; adapts instruction to the level of the class; flexible, etc.). o Gives feedback and positive reinforcement. o Is fair and impartial (nonjudgmental, open, accepting, etc.). o Communicates at the students' level (using language and examples appropriate to the level of the class.). o Involves students in the lesson (through questions, problem solving, simulations, etc.). o Shows interest in each learner. o Is an attentive and responsive listener. o Has clear objectives. Richard Miller (1974) summarized student surveys on the characteristics of effective teaching. The results of eight surveys are listed below to serve as yardsticks to measure your teaching behaviors. ------------------------ Characteristics of Good Teaching Bousfield (61 Students, University of Connecticut) o Fairness o Mastery of subject o Interesting presentation of material o Well organized material o Cleanness of exposition o Interest to students o Helpfulness o Ability to direct discussion o Sincerity o Keenness of intellect Clinton (177 students, Oregon State University) o Knowledge of subject o Pleasing personality o Neatness in appearance and work o Fairness o Kind and sympathetic o Keen sense of humor o Interest in profession o Interesting presentation o Alertness and broad-mindedness o Knowledge of methods Deshpande (674 students rating 32 engineering teachers) o Motivation o Rapport o Structure o Clarity o Content mastery o Overload (too much work) o Evaluation procedure o Use of teaching aids o Instructional skills o Teaching styles French (Students at University of Washington) o Interprets ideas clearly o Develops student interest o Develops skills of thinking o Broadens interests o Stresses important materials o Good pedagogical methods o Motivates to do best work o Knowledge of subject o Conveys new viewpoints o Clear explanation Gadzella (443 students, Washington State University) o Knowledge of subject o Interest in subject o Well prepared o Uses appropriate vocabulary Perry (1,493 students, faculty, and alumni, University of Toledo) o Well prepared for class o Sincere in interest in subject o Knowledge of subject o Effective teaching methods o Tests for understanding o Fair in evaluation o Effective communication o Encourages independent thought o Course organized logically o Motivates students Pogue (307 students, Philander-Smith College) o Knowledge of subject o Fair evaluator o Explains clearly Hildebrand (138 students, University of California, Davis) o Dynamic and energetic person o Explains clearly o Interesting presentation o Enjoys teaching o Interest in students o Friendly toward students o Encourages class discussion o Discusses other points of view ------------------------ The above information should be utilized to take a critical look at your style, skills, and abilities. The next two trainer assessment tools can help you get feedback on your training strengths and weaknesses. Next time you conduct a training session, distribute the evaluation forms to observers. The feedback you receive will help you polish your instructional skills. The first assessment tool encompasses most aspects of a trainer's performance. Eight areas of skill can be assessed: content, design, methods, leadership, participation, adult learning, visuals, and time. Some of the skills are physical, others involve process, and others relate to workshop design. (See Appendix D.1, Trainer's Performance Assessment.) The second tool assesses your lesson delivery in several key areas including checking for student understanding, participation, time management, lesson objectives, and others. This assessment tool is used during the Practicum section of this training. (See Appendix D.2, Instructor Assessment Lesson Delivery.) The Ultimate Educator Has Ultimate Style! This chapter has reviewed various instructor styles. You have had a chance to read what the experts say about successful instructors. You have reviewed student ideas of effective teaching and considered your own skills and abilities. Now it is time to contract for change . . . use the Instructor Assessment Lesson Delivery form (Appendix D.2) to identify your strengths and weaknesses and develop a plan for improvement. References Bledsoe, J. L. March 1976. "Understanding Trainee Communication Styles: Different Strokes for Different Folks." Training Magazine. Caldwell, R. M. and M. Marcel. January 1985. "Evaluating Trainers: In Search of the Perfect Method." Training Magazine. Klatt, B. 1999. The Ultimate Training Workshop Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill. Margolis, F. and C. Bell. 1986. Instructing for Results. Minneapolis, MN: Lakewood Publications. Miller, R. I. 1974. Developing Programs for Faculty Evaluation. New York: Jossey-Boss. Mitchell, G. 1993. The Trainers Handbook, 2nd ed. New York: American Management Association. O'Meara, F. 1996. "The Pedagogue Is Decalogue." In D. Zielinski, ed., Delivering Training: Mastery in the Classroom, Minneapolis, MN: Lakewood Books. ---------------------------- Chapter 5. Ultimate Facilitation Introduction The word "facilitation" carries a variety of meanings based on the context in which it is used. The most common definition of "facilitate" is "to make easier-- to move forward." Given this definition, what is facilitation in the context of the training environment? A facilitator's role depends on the function of the group. It is the facilitator's responsibility to help the group to meet its goals and objectives. Groups convene for a variety of purposes with facilitators at the helm to provide structure and direction. It is not uncommon to be part of a setting where a facilitator guides a group toward a particular purpose. Facilitators are called upon to provide information (traditional teacher role) and skill instruction (traditional trainer role), facilitate change (traditional therapist role), and guide decision making (traditional organization role). While the function of groups calls for specific actions on the part of facilitators, a facilitator's role goes well beyond the group function resting on a set of basic skills. This chapter focuses on basic facilitation skills as they relate primarily to a specific type of facilitator: the content expert as facilitator, a unique combination of teacher and trainer, the Ultimate Facilitator. You will explore responsive behaviors and general skills, including more specific skills in the areas of coordination, presentation, and facilitation important for Ultimate Facilitators. PARTICIPANT EXPECTATIONS Participants often place high expectations on the abilities of facilitators. While it could be argued that the standard role of the facilitator calls for neutrality while supporting group values of democracy, cooperation, and shared responsibility, the reality is that participants in the training environment expect the facilitator to meet all their needs--from physical comfort and camaraderie to actual realization of their learning goals. Here is where the facilitator employs the magic to direct while being nondirective, to control while being noncontrolling, and to assist participants in learning the material without doing the learning for them. Be assured, the group will hold you accountable! Doing Your Homework A general rule often stated in training circles is that it takes approximately eight hours of preparation time for each hour of actual delivery time of a new training program or session. Preparation time will obviously vary, depending on the trainer's experience; level of expertise and previous conduct of the same or similar trainings; and familiarity with and knowledge about the expertise level of the participants. Whether this is time spent in preparing a lesson plan or assessing your participants, every bit of energy and every second spent in preparation will return benefits two-fold during the training session. KEY HOMEWORK ELEMENTS o Know the goal. While knowing the goals and objectives of the session are critical to the development of the lesson plan, facilitators often inherit a lesson plan they had no part in developing. Being clear on the goals of any training session is critical--as a guide and a contract. o Know your participants. Information concerning participants' needs and knowledge assists the facilitator during training development and delivery. Learning strategies and the level of instruction can be designed and modified for specific learning styles. Remember, a principle of adult learning holds that adults are a rich resource for knowledge and experience; knowing your participants gives you the ability to tap that resource. o Design the lessons. Lesson design elements (however formally structured as a lesson plan) describe the standard way in which the instruction should be the same. In other words, the formal lesson plan contains the "content," the parameters of knowledge necessary to accomplish the learning goal(s). The teaching strategies you choose to deliver the lesson plan describe how you will be different: the way you will "reach" your participants, the "process" of training. While a lesson plan (content) often remains the same from each training situation to the next, the process must be matched to the participants and session goals as well as to the unique style of the instructor. o Develop learning materials. Learning materials help the facilitator to meet training goals. Quality, well-structured learning materials (such as specific, content-tailored in-class exercises) reinforce learning and send the message that the facilitator values the participant. Responsive Behaviors . . . it's the quality of teachers' interactions that determine the degree of warmth- -trust--rapport--openness--psychological safety in the classroom . . . --Khan & Weiss (1973) Facilitators should strive to create an environment for maximum learning to occur. Basically, it is the way facilitators respond to participants that creates a healthy learning environment. In the educational arena, it has been found that the manner in which teachers respond to students has great influence on the students' behaviors. The same can be said of facilitators--their responsive behaviors exert influence on participant self-esteem, attitude, achievement, desire to learn, and rapport. Responsive behaviors are those actions undertaken by the facilitator after a participant responds to a facilitator's question or instruction. Four distinctive responsive behaviors are listed below, all of which require instructors to listen to participants: Silence. Facilitators are often afraid of silence during training sessions. It has been demonstrated, however, that the length of a pause following a question has impact on the length and thoughtfulness of the learner's response. Short pauses following questions often result in brief or one-word participant responses. However, the willingness of facilitators to allow longer pauses after questions facilitates whole sentences and complete thoughts and encourages speculation. Longer pauses place the responsibility for thinking on participants instead of on the facilitator. Accepting. Nonjudgmental and nonevaluative accepting behavior on the part of the facilitator contributes to establishment of a safe, nonthreatening learning environment. It is important to recognize the messages you send verbally and nonverbally to participants. A simple "good" response to one participant followed by "okay" to another sends "value" messages. Your body language also sends powerful messages. A few value messages (both praise and criticism) can limit the learning potential of the group. Here are some examples of useful acceptance behavior: o Passive acceptance. Receiving without value judgment. "Um-hum." "Okay." Writing the answer on a tear-sheet. "I understand." o Active acceptance. Demonstrates an understanding. Paraphrasing, rephrasing, reflecting, and summarizing are examples of active acceptance. o Empathic acceptance. Acceptance of feelings in addition to ideas. Facilitators can demonstrate empathy when they express similar feelings from their own experience. Clarifying. Clarifying is inviting the participant to become more specific or requesting the participant to elaborate or rephrase the idea. The intent is to help the facilitator better understand the participant's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Clarifying informs participants that their ideas are worthy of exploration and consideration; you honor the participant while attempting to gain an understanding. Facilitating data. The facilitator makes it possible for participants to process and acquire information. If the facilitator perceives a need for data or participants request data, the facilitator must meet that need in some way, even if it means getting back to the participants at a later time. Facilitating data can take place in a variety of ways, by providing: (1) direct feedback; (2) equipment and materials; (3) primary and secondary sources of information; and (4) surveying the group for information. General Skills In any training situation, a facilitator uses a set of general skills to provide a learning environment conducive to the accomplishment of training goals. Although the tasks of setting the learning climate, motivation, maintaining commitment, and closure are often not discussed as facilitation skills, they may in fact be the most useful for success. It is important to recognize that while a great deal of energy and time goes into session preparation and training delivery, as much energy must go into the support of the session and its participants. The general skills of setting the learning environment, motivation, maintaining commitment, and closure pave the way for realization of several training goals: participant comfort, building positive training expectations, enthusiasm, respectful relationships, and expectations of success following training. Setting the learning environment. The first steps in preparing the learning environment occur well before the training session. Knowing the training goal and participants, designing the lesson, and developing learning materials contribute to the setting of the learning environment; specifically, these homework elements set the learning parameters. With parameters established, how do facilitators create " successful" learning environments? The following exercise provides an opportunity to explore the elements of such a learning environment. o Hotel Exercise. Think about the experience of arriving at a hotel in another city. Beginning with your arrival at the hotel and eventually entering your hotel room, what "environmental" factors did you notice/consider? To list a few: --Location of hotel (quality of area, access to resources). --Behavior of staff (attentiveness, friendliness, helpfulness). --Hotel room (cleanliness, decor, comfort, smells, sounds, feeling impression, room temperature, "goodies," restroom). All of these factors contribute to your qualitative expectation of your overall hotel stay. It can be suggested that the attention one pays to the arrival of a hotel room is very similar to a participant's arrival at a training situation and expectation of training to follow! Some very basic behaviors can help facilitators create a healthy learning environment. As a whole these actions can establish an atmosphere of good will, trust, creativity, and cooperation, which in the long run will help you meet training goals and survive training disasters. o Preparing the room. Prepare the training environment to create positive impressions of the training to follow. Room set-up (visuals, physical layout, training materials, refreshments, music) can go a long way in setting the stage. o Greeting the participants. Arrive early; leave late. Make yourself available to participants. If possible, greet participants as they arrive--this also helps with remembering names and relationships later. o Making introductions. In some manner, depending on group size, make introductions. Introduce yourself; establish credibility while demonstrating warmth and humanness. Through participant introductions recognize each individual and the knowledge/experience he or she brings to the training. o Setting ground rules/schedules. Participants expect you to take care of them during your time as their facilitator. Although they may not admit it, most participants appreciate structure and rules, particularly to insure that you meet your commitments to them. Your discussion of rules and schedules can encourage harmonious working relationships, build enthusiasm, and build commitment. These ground rules and schedules are a contract between you and the participants; don't establish any rules/procedures you aren't willing to follow yourself. Time frames are important--start on time, end on time (and always seek permission from participants when agreed-upon time schedules are not met). Traditional ground rules might include: o No idea is a bad idea. o It is important for everyone to participate, and it is helpful if individuals don't over-participate at the expense of others. o No arguments! o If instructions for activities are not clear, participants will ask for clarification. o Breaks (a few long breaks or a lot of short breaks), and participants can inform faculty when they are desperate for one. o If the agreed-upon schedule needs to be adapted, participants will be asked for their input. Addressing mental health issues. Often, topics addressed in victim- or justice- related training sessions can produce vicarious trauma, particularly if any participants have victimization experiences. A good facilitator should announce at the beginning of the training that if any participants experience stress as a result of the topics to be addressed, they can leave the room without question, and they can seek support from faculty who are designated to provide assistance. Motivation. Many participants do not attend training voluntarily; it is the role of the facilitator to encourage a "want to" attitude. Even if the knowledge or skill to be acquired is a requirement of the job, every facilitator should strive for "want to" versus "have to" attitudes. Encouraging participants to want to involve themselves in learning can take place at several points in the training process. Prior to training, participants can be encouraged to involve themselves through "pretraining" information that outlines the agenda highlights and anticipated benefits and outcomes of the training. During the introduction, the facilitator can again reinforce these items while demonstrating enthusiasm and sharing a few "success" stories. In lesson design, the facilitator's choice of teaching strategies can make training a vital, exciting process. Specific techniques can assist the facilitator in motivating participants: o Focus on results: sample goals, significance of goal attainment, examples of goal attainment. o Enhance the importance in learning: support from experts, support of management. o Focus on assurance of success: expectation of success, peer assurance of success. o Highlight the process of training: building expectations about process (the exciting things to come). o Encourage group support. o Nurture individual participants. Probably your most powerful motivator is your reputation as a quality facilitator! Commitment. Often the initial burst of enthusiasm at the beginning of a training session begins to fade as the session progresses. A variety of techniques can be used to rekindle enthusiasm: o Place energetic "commitment" activities in the lesson design. o Summarize progress during the session (enthusiasm and motivation). o Refocus participants on course goals and the value of the goals. o Conduct exercises that get participants up and moving around. o Conduct group activities that "mix and match" participants so they are exposed to a variety of input from their colleagues. o Encourage and validate continued participant involvement. o Demonstrate concern for the group and each individual. o Restore energy and good feelings. Closure. Closing the session probably garners the least attention of any component of the training process. Closing activities are routinely minimized or eliminated in the interest of time. Brief, well-structured closing activities can have a powerful impact on participants as they complete the session and also when they return to the "real world." Closing activities should: o Provide closure to session. Closing activities signal the end of the training session. o Tie up loose ends. Often sessions come to an end with unresolved issues, "put off" tasks, etc., which call for resolution. Closing activities allow the facilitator to address and make recommendations in these areas. o Summarize the highlights. The closing provides an opportunity for the facilitator to pull it all together. The facilitator succinctly integrates all that has occurred during the session and relates the experience to participants' everyday life and/or occupation. o Suggest appropriate follow-up. The facilitator may suggest where participants can go to get additional information/instruction, and attend follow-up activities that reinforce and assess the learning of the completed training session. o Provide for transition. What is the link back to everyday life? What are participants going to do with the learning acquired during the training session? Closing activities can be structured to invite participants to explore their goals and consider their practical application to their jobs and personal lives. COORDINATION SKILLS Coordination skills are those used by facilitators during the training session to provide information, and guide the learning process. While coordination may not be as challenging as presentation or facilitation, it is probably the most demanding and time intensive, and may be viewed as the major role of facilitator/trainer. The coordination role of facilitators requires: o Constant "checking in" with participants to ensure that training objectives are being met. o Physically moving around the room to listen to and guide specific learning activities. o Getting feedback from individual participants during breaks as to the effectiveness of the training activities and processes. o Providing guidance to other faculty members based upon feedback from participants. Presenting the agenda and resource materials. The agenda is the written contract between the facilitator and participants. It outlines content and time frame commitments. Presenting the agenda often represents the first sustained opportunity to interact with participants. It sets the stage, sets the tone, and gives a glimpse of things to come. While presenting the agenda, facilitators should do the following: o Focus and maintain attention. o Set the tone, encourage participation. o Emphasize key points. o Create clarity. o Provide the opportunity to ask "Is there anything here that's missing that you think I should address?". A brief review of resource materials is helpful, particularly in training programs where time does not permit in-depth coverage of the training topics. A "bonding with your binder" overview lets participants know that myriad resources are available to them for reference both during the training session and after. Facilitators should also be diligent about orally referencing the relevant resource materials for each segment of the training program. Facilitators should also seek validation from participants that the agenda and resource materials meet their needs. Introducing activities. An effective introduction of a learning activity prepares participants emotionally and cognitively by focusing them on the ideas, skills, and attitudes central to that activity. Goals and purposes of the activity must be clearly linked to the overall training goal. The following steps are important to successful activity introduction: o State the purpose and goals. o Suggest the value. o Clarify participant responsibilities. o Build positive expectations. Giving instructions/directions. Instructions/directions should be structured in a way that encourages participants to focus their time and energy on carrying out the training activity rather than trying to understand the instructions. Written instructions can be a valuable tool. The following steps are important in giving instructions: o Select the mode (verbal, written, handout, overhead transparency). o Connect with prior learning if relevant. o Set specific constraints/time frames. o Confirm understanding, and/or provide opportunities for further clarification. Establishing activity groups. The process of establishing activity groups involves arranging participants in groups appropriate in size and composition for efficient completion of learning activities. Activity groups promote the acquisition of interpersonal and cooperative skills and can enrich the learning environment by giving participants access to the knowledge and skills of other participants. The following should be taken into consideration when establishing groups: o Size of groups. The number of trainers to assist, the total number of participants, and the type of activity determine the size of activity groups. In general, larger groups are recommended for activities that stress group interaction and exchange. If focus is on individual contribution, smaller groups are usually indicated. Often, groups of six to ten individuals are good for brainstorming, discussion, and decision making. Problem solving is often more successful in smaller groups of two to five participants. o Composition of groups. Most often, diversity is the key to the group product. Group divisions can also be used by facilitators to break up "cliques," deal with problem participants, and insure a distribution of knowledge and skills throughout the group. Techniques for dividing groups. A number of techniques can be utilized to divide groups: o Placing stickers (i.e., dots, stars, etc.) on participants' name tags that differentiate groups. o Divide the participants into two groups: those with less than five years experience, and those with more than five years experience. Then take three from each side to form teams of six (this also helps address "the learning curve" and provides opportunities for more experienced participants to share their insights with less experienced colleagues). o Divide the participants by profession (i.e., law enforcement, victim services, corrections), then either keep them in "like" groups or mix-and-match participants, depending on the learning activity. o Provide a candy--such as Tootsie Pops--to participants, and divide them by the color of the candy. o A fun group division approach is to give each participant a piece of paper with a "physical activity" listed on it, such as: --Winking. --"High-fiving." --Snapping fingers. --Flapping their arms like a chicken. --Clapping their hands. --Twirling in circles. Then, play a lively song (such as "Hit the Road, Jack!") and ask participants to do their physical activity, and group together with other participants who are doing the same. This is an energizing approach to group division, and especially appropriate after lunch or late in the training day. Arranging for participant reports. Participant reports are often the group product or outcome of a group facilitation. If any segment of a session is going to "destroy" time frames, it is most often "group reports run amok!" Valuable group contributions can rapidly deteriorate unless carefully structured and guided by the facilitator. Facilitators must specifically delineate the structure and length of the report and determine the reporter. Reports must represent a brief summary of the group's work (not individual work). Time frames must be relatively rigid and efforts should be made not to duplicate information reported by other groups. If the facilitator wants to engage as many participants as possible, it is helpful to ask groups to designate a "recorder" (who records the group's data on tear sheets) and a "reporter" (who delivers the data to the full group). Both positions can be voluntary, or designated by the facilitator (for example, the "recorder" is the participant with the birthday closest to today, and the "reporter" is the participant with the birthday farthest away from today--or the participants who traveled the least and furthest to the training venue). In all cases, recording and reporting should be voluntary, so those who fit the "requirements" should always be allowed to solicit another volunteer. It is essential to process group reports in "round robin" fashion, i.e., one group reports one or two findings and then selects another group to process their findings, until all groups have had a chance to speak. Monitoring group activities. Circulating the training room, unobtrusively, during group activities serves several functions: It allows facilitators to observe and confirm group activities, to correct and guide, to provide materials/information if necessary and, most importantly, to maintain contact with participants. PRESENTATION SKILLS Presentation skills are those used by facilitators during the training session to provide the concepts, principles, models, and skills (the content of training) that participants are expected to learn. Presenting is the traditional role of teachers, instructors, and trainers. It is the presenter role that conjures up stereotypic images of teachers and professors standing behind a podium in front of the class lecturing to students. In training that is participant-centered, the presenting role is limited in use and utilized in conjunction with coordinating and facilitating to assist and guide participants as they learn. Several skills are critical to effective presenting, including: Communication. Communication is a two-way process by which trainers make participants aware of the content of training. A two-way process requires trainers to arrange presentations so that there are opportunities for participants to speak, and for trainers to listen. Communication provides for a sharing of ideas and interpretations and to reach agreements about meanings. Structuring. Structuring the presentation involves arranging the parts of the presentation so that participants can readily assimilate the content. Structuring also means adjusting the structure during a presentation to meet the needs of learners. Most trainers arrange their presentations in three main parts: introduction, instruction, and conclusion. o Introduction. Suggests a context for the information to be presented and relates to other knowledge of participants and to earlier portions of the training session. o Instruction. The central portion of the presentation. Key points are determined and sequenced, and supporting details are identified. The number of key points should be kept at a minimum. Clear transitions should be made between key topics or ideas. o Conclusion. The conclusion should help participants retain what they have learned and complete internal processing of the information. The conclusion should include two elements: the review and the summary. The review offers a condensed version of the presentation; it focuses on information, skills, and procedures (content review). The summary focuses on the results of the presentation and participant participation (process summary). Body language. Body language is any outwardly visible expression by facilitators that can positively affect participant efforts to learn. Body language includes facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, postures, and physical positioning in the training environment. Participants are aware of your movements and will attribute meaning (positive and negative) to these movements. Body language can help your presentation in several ways: It can support your vocal presentation; certain movements (nods, smiles, hand gestures) help to create rapport with participants; and body movements can also contribute to maintaining participants' attention. Providing feedback. Providing feedback is the process facilitators use to give special information to participants that enables them to verify and, as necessary, modify their understanding of ideas and adjust responses or performances in learning activities. Using this process requires facilitators to be alert to participant behaviors that indicate a need for feedback, and to be creative in devising means of giving feedback that is appropriate to participants and to the learning environment. Some special preparation prior to your presentation will help you provide feedback to participants. First, remind yourself of the learning objectives. Second, review the major points in your presentation and determine where participants may need feedback. Finally, review participant characteristics for clues to the type of feedback that would be most useful for them. FACILITATION SKILLS Facilitation skills are those used during the training session to help participants explore, develop, and assess ideas and feelings in the context of learning activities. Using these skills, facilitators guide and promote learning. In this role, facilitators actively participate in learning activities, as well as the process of clarifying purposes, drawing out ideas, encouraging full involvement, and asking key questions. Facilitating is probably the trainer's most important and challenging role. One of the most important facilitation skills is the ability to delegate. Facilitation requires 100 percent of one's energy and focus and, as such, can be exhausting. Facilitators can seek support and assistance for all learning activities from other facilitators, faculty, and even participants, as needed. Establishing/maintaining cohesiveness and cooperation. The establishment and maintenance of cohesiveness and cooperation are processes trainers use to ensure that learning activities requiring participants to work in groups will be carried out effectively. This process requires trainers to make clear to participants the significance of close cooperation for learning in a group context. It also requires trainers to minimize conflict, divisiveness, and competition, and maximize concern, support, and carrying out cohesiveness and cooperation tasks successfully. This requires you to use a variety of skills, including the following: o Clarifying goals and constraints. o Creating a harmonious atmosphere. o Securing an agreement on the basis for group work. o Providing clear and concise instructions. o Structuring group discussions. o Using body language. o Controlling participant/facilitator reaction to reactions. o "Checking in" periodically with other faculty and participants to ensure continued cohesiveness. Soliciting participant knowledge/expertise. The solicitation of participants' knowledge and expertise is a process by which facilitators encourage participants working together in groups to share their knowledge and their skills. Through this process, the facilitator publicly acknowledges the expertise of each participant and seeks to induce every participant to contribute relevant portions of that expertise to group discussions. To make the solicitation process effective, you will need to use all your interpersonal relations skills, as well as your communication skills, to help create an atmosphere in which participants will feel free to speak out at appropriate times. In addition, you will need to acknowledge and encourage the following: o Participant expertise. o Use of eliciting questions. o Participants asking eliciting questions of others. Encouraging participation. Encouraging participation is the process used by facilitators to help ensure that every participant has an opportunity to engage profitably in group learning activities. Encouraging members of groups to participate freely and equitably is particularly important to the success of learning activities. You should try to make full use of the information you have about participants and use a variety of the following skills and devices to encourage participation: o Use application questions--ones that focus on soliciting information about the utility of application of skills, knowledge, and attitudes. o Handle serial monologues/dialogues. o Deal with real or imagined deficiencies in knowledge and understanding. o Deal with frustration arising from faulty reasoning. o Deal with negative feelings. Remaining unaligned during activities. Establishing and maintaining a free and unaligned relationship to your participants are not always easy tasks. To resist pressures to align and, at the same time, to maintain the harmony and cohesiveness of your group, you will need to make effective use of your communication and interpersonal skills. You will also need to use your skills in re-directing and returning questions. In addition, other tasks are important, including the following: o Establishing your role as facilitator. o Acknowledging participant responses. o Using "I" messages. o Using summaries to maintain nonalignment. o Actively seeking feedback from other faculty and participants. The Ultimate Facilitator Is a Master Magician! As you can see, behind the bells, whistles, smoke, and illusion is a facilitator using some very basic communication and interpersonal skills! As you gain experience in facilitating groups, you will learn to trust an inner sense of direction in determining the best action in a particular situation based on your understanding of peoples' needs, both as individuals and as part of a larger group. You need to combine experience, feedback, observation, and reflection in order to develop competence. You will discover that experience is the most effective training tool! ---------------------------- Chapter 6. Ultimate Presentation Introduction So you have to give a presentation . . . . The thought of presenting a lecture, speech, or workshop can be intimidating to some and exhilarating to others. Presenters' perceptions of their own capabilities and knowledge base ultimately contribute to their comfort level. The many components involved in preparing for a presentation have a significant influence on the outcome. Perhaps most significantly, presenters must be comfortable with a style that suits both them and their audience. The five core concepts of a strong presentation are represented in the age-old refrain to a favorite nursery rhyme: "E-I-E-I-O." 1. Engage participants from the moment they enter the training venue to the time they depart. 2. Interact with participants to avoid a one-way transfer of knowledge and to assess the level at which they are grasping the concepts that are being presented. 3. Educate participants with current and cutting-edge information and resources. 4. Involve students in the learning process through experiential activities and exercises. 5. Organize the presentation so that the flow of information and the tone of the presentation are consistent. The Role of the Presenter/Trainer It is the responsibility of the presenter/trainer to lead the training session and to facilitate participants' interactions that will lend positively to their overall learning experience. While organization and control are necessary components of presentation, they must be tempered with a flexibility that respects students' expectations and needs and reflects an understanding of the importance of a comfortable, friendly learning environment. A strong presenter ensures that key training topics are addressed while, at the same time, being willing to tackle issues that arise from interactions with participants. Teaching Versus Training Presentations offered in the field of victim services usually encompass styles and outcomes most associated with training. In some cases, such as the National Victim Assistance Academy, university-style teaching via lectures is combined with training styles and techniques. Training focuses on the learners, with an emphasis on their needs. In training venues, the presenter fills the role of facilitator, providing guidance through an interactive learning design to help students incorporate information into their personal frame of reference and discover ways to apply it in practical ways to their work and lives. The primary differences between teaching and training are best summarized by renowned adult learning theorist M. S. Knowles (1980) in the following table. ------------------------ Primary Differences Between Teaching and Training Teaching o Underlying Philosophy: --Knowledge is passed from the teacher to the learner. --Organizations are improved through technical advances. --Teacher-oriented o Assessment of Needs for and Results of Education: Looks only at observable, measurable behavior. o Learning Objectives: --Usually insist on measurable and precise behavioral objectives. --Emphasize acquiring information. o Content: Often used for technical knowledge and skills; psychomotor skills; languages; mathematics; and science. o Learning Methods: --Tend to be subject-oriented in structuring the content and mechanical in devising instructional methods. --Use programmed learning, lecture, and audio/visual. Training o Underlying Philosophy: --Knowledge is discovered through mutual investigation of problems and issues. --Organizations are improved through developing the resources and self- directing capabilities of learners. --Learner-oriented o Assessment of Needs for and Results of Education: Looks at attitude as well as behavior. o Learning Objectives: --Tailor degree of precision in objectives to the task or skill being learned. --Emphasize interpersonal and self-directing competencies. o Content: Appropriate for interpersonal and technical skills requiring some degree of analysis and judgment; managerial skills; the arts and humanities. o Learning Methods: --Tend to orient the structure of the content to the learner, the problem, and the situation. --Use discovery learning methods. ------------------------ Training Preparation ADVANCE PREPARATION Regardless of whether a presentation is a 30-minute speech or a two-day training session, it is critical that the presenter be prepared for the experience. Lack of preparation is always obvious, and reflects poorly on both the presenter and sponsors of the program. Thoughtful, coordinated preparation almost always results in a presentation that is informative and engaging. There are five critical considerations for advance preparation: Audience. It is essential to know who the primary audience is. In the discipline of victim services, audience members can include the following: o Crime victims. o Community- and system-based victim service providers. o Criminal and juvenile justice professionals. o Allied professionals (such as mental health, faith community, educators, academia, etc.) o Public policy makers and elected officials. o Members of the community. o Volunteers. Often, an audience is comprised of a combination of the above groups, each of which may have its own goals and expectations for the presentation. In identifying the types of audience members, presenters can formulate both their content and style to increase participants' comfort and to maximize the potential for participant training. While it is helpful to know participants' affiliations, it is equally essential to have a basic understanding of their familiarity with the presentation topic, level(s) of knowledge, and possible expectations: o Are they seeking a high level, introductory overview of the topic, or more specific, practical "hands-on" knowledge? o How will participants utilize the knowledge they gain from the presentation? o Will the knowledge that is gained through the presentation be utilized on an individual or agency basis, or is collaboration an ultimate goal? o Will the presentation seek to offer new perspectives, or change existing ones? Both? o Is there a "learning curve" among participants and, if so, how can it be effectively utilized by the presenter? o What are participants' rationale for attending the training program? Are they: --Vacationers (consider this a "day off" from the grind of work)? --Hostages (were told to attend and do not want to be here)? --Happy campers (participants who are pleased to attend and eager to participate)? (Note: Presenters can orally ask about participants' rationale, using these categories in a humorous manner that provides important insights into participants' motivation or lack thereof.) Politics among participants. Two victim advocates often reflect upon a shared training experience in which they thought they had "advance preparation" down to a science. After arriving and setting up the room for a two-day training session, participants began to arrive and move their name plates around. One casually explained that "It's not a good idea for certain people in this session to sit next to each other; we could have some problems." Advance preparation requires that a presenter have advance knowledge and understanding of any "political land mines" among participants and sponsors. These might include: o Differing perspectives among individuals and agencies attending the presentation. o Personality conflicts between/among individuals. o Recent or pending legislation relevant to the presentation topic that might invoke heated discussions. o "Turf issues" that create barriers to collaboration. o Participants who have the reputation for dominating training sessions with opinions and hyperbole. o Any other types of issues that can create conflict among audience members. An understanding of politics among participants can result in several distinct approaches for the presenter, who can: o Avoid any "red flag" topics in the presentation. o Covertly address the issues at the root of personal and professional politics (to give audience members an opportunity to reflect upon things that are causing divisiveness among them). o Use humor to address the basic nature of human conflict, i.e., "Aren't we lucky that we work in a discipline where everybody gets along all the time, and we all see eye to eye?" o Incorporate conflict resolution topics and techniques into his or her presentation, and encourage participants to confront and manage conflict, rather than to avoid or negate it. Current events. Prior to conducting a training program, presenters should make a diligent effort to be knowledgeable about current events. These might include: o Recently enacted laws that have an impact on participants and their jobs. o High profile cases that may create underlying tensions among participants. o Innovative new program approaches that the training programs' sponsors or participants are funding or supporting. Such activities can be identified through advance conversations with the training program's sponsors, or by reviewing the past week's (or month's) newspapers (which are readily available on news media's Web sites). Physical environment. Often, presenters have little or no control over the physical environment of the training venue: o The most difficult room set-up in which to effectively train is the traditional "theater style" seating without tables, in which participants all face the presenter, but also face the back of their colleagues' heads. o Traditional theater seating can be improved by moving rows of chairs into an inverted "V" so that participants' seats are angled toward the front, with a center aisle dividing the apex of the "V." o The ideal presentation room set-up to enhance group interactions and activities is groupings of square, rectangular, or round tables--angled toward the front of the room--that seat four to eight participants. It is helpful for presenters to have a table set up at the front of the room to accommodate presentation materials, such as overhead transparencies and participant handouts. A resource table in the back of the room near the door is also a good idea so that presenters and participants can leave materials for students to take, as they choose. Rooms should always be set up with an entrance/exit door in the back of the room, so that participants can come and go without disrupting the presentation. The participant registration table can be placed outside the training room near the entrance/exit door. Presentation agenda and topics. There is no such thing as "too much information" in preparing to give a presentation. In planning a presentation, there must be strong collaboration between the presenter and the sponsor(s) of the program. It is crucial to match the needs and goals of the audience with the skills and knowledge of the presenter. Without advance collaboration, a "disconnect" between the presenter's goals and the sponsors' goals is likely to occur. The following questions are helpful in ascertaining the sponsor's goals for the presentation, as well as expected outcomes: o Have the participants received any adequate training on this topic? o Will there be a "learning curve" among participants, i.e., some more knowledgeable than others? If there is, can the experience and expertise of some participants be utilized in a positive manner to educate other participants? o How will the information gained from the presentation be used by the participants? (Expectations of students and sponsors are sometimes quite different.) o What are the practical applications and outcomes that the sponsor would like to result from the knowledge gained? o Are there specific skills that the sponsor would like his/her participants to gain from attending this session? o What are the most critical topics that the sponsor would like the presenter to address? What about topics that are important, but less critical to the sponsor's expected outcomes? o Are there any existing barriers that might detrimentally affect the learning environment (e.g., participant conflicts, participants being "forced" to attend the session, poor physical environment)? o What types of presentation techniques would be most beneficial to the participants? --Lecture? --Individual exercises? --Small group exercises? --Use of audio/visual aids? --A combination of the above? ON-SITE PREPARATION When participants first arrive at a presentation venue, they should be immediately engaged by the presenter and by the physical environment. They should be visually enthralled by the learning environment. They should be able to look around and say to themselves, "This looks like it is going to be an engaging and interactive presentation." Some creative ideas for on-site preparation include: Use of visuals. There are many different types of visuals that can enhance a presentation venue: o Tear sheet pads that include colorful messages such as "Good Morning!" and "Welcome to the _______ Program." o Tear sheet paper posted on walls that include: --"Expectations." To record participant expectations of the presentation prior to beginning the session. Presenters should clarify exactly which "expectations" can be met through the session, and offer referrals for further information about topics that cannot be addressed within the time frame. "Expectations" should be maintained in full view throughout the session to help ensure that they are met. --Resource sheets. Presenters should offer students additional materials that can be obtained through clearinghouses, Web sites, and other resources. Two to four tear sheets posted on the wall entitled "Additional Resources" or "Extra Stuff" can be filled as the presentation progresses. --"Parking Lot." A tear sheet with a picture of a car, for example, provides a space for participants to post questions or ideas that arise throughout the session, without interrupting the flow of the session. Presenters can also use the "parking lot" to post questions and topics students raise that can be addressed at a later time. Parking lot topics can either be written in felt pen on the tear sheet, or placed there using Post-it notes that are provided to participants. It is important for presenters to ensure that parking lot topics are addressed, either personally to the participant who identified it, or to the group as a whole. o Posters. Myriad posters that depict victims' rights and issues are readily available and can be placed on walls around the room (for black-and-white posters, it is a good idea to create a backing of colored construction paper). The resource guides published by the Victims' Assistance Legal Organization (VALOR) and National Center for Victims of Crime (NCVC) for National Crime Victims' Rights Week each year are excellent resources for victim- related posters. Such visuals serve to make an immediate connection with the audience and topic. o Overhead transparencies. A "welcome" slide with the title of the presentation, humorous and relevant cartoon, inspirational saying, or other artwork can be displayed on the projector screen when participants arrive, as well as during breaks. Refreshments. Water, coffee, tea, sodas, and morning/afternoon snacks are important to participants as well as presenters. Small candies placed on tables are usually met with gratitude from weary students. "Prize box." A box or bag decorated with felt markers to indicate "FABULOUS PRIZES" catches participants' eyes, and gets them thinking about if/how they could get whatever is in the box. Inexpensive prizes can be found at the local dollar store; candy bars make good prizes, as well as items from victim service and justice organizations or conference resource arenas (such as buttons, bookmarks, t-shirts, notepads, etc.) Interpersonal interactions. Participants should also be greeted upon arrival by the presenter(s). This requires plenty of advance preparation (including planning to arrive at least 30 minutes before the designated starting time) so that when participants arrive, the presenter is prepared to personally meet them. Some presenters find it difficult to personally meet and greet students prior to the presentation. While this process takes practice to perfect, it is helpful to create an immediate "bond" between the presenter and participants. Some examples of personal greetings include: o "Good morning, I'm ________ and I'll be spending the next two days with you. What agency/organization are you from? Could you tell me a little about your work?" o "Hi, my name is ______ and I'll be your presenter today. I'm really happy to be here, and I'm glad you can join us for what should be a great learning experience." o "My name's ______ and I'll be spending the next two hours with you. That's a great tie--where did you get it?" o "I'm so glad you all invited me to join you here today. I'm _________. And you are [read the participant's name tag]. Can you tell me a little about yourself and the work you do?" Use of music. An audio tape/CD player with tapes or CDs is a great tool for livening up the training environment. Music can be played that reflects the theme(s) of the program (for example, "We Can Work It Out" for a session on collaboration; "Respect" for a session on burnout and stress). For longer sessions, students can be asked to bring their favorite tape or CD to share their music with others. Anatomy of a Presentation The "anatomy of a presentation" describes its scope and the activities that enhance the learning process. While there are a variety of components applicable to different presentations, for the purposes of presentations related to victims' rights and services, twelve key elements are essential: 1. Introduction of the presenter. Presenters should have three types of vita that summarize their accomplishments: o A three-to-four sentence overview of professional accomplishments, written in a manner that is conducive to introductions (i.e., how the presenter wants to be introduced). o A one-page summary of accomplishments that are specific to the training topic (e.g., general victim assistance, restorative justice emphasis, mental health emphasis, etc.). o The traditional, complete vitae that highlights the presenter's professional history. The first format should be utilized for introductions; the second for conference or training program announcements; and the third to provide an historical summary of the presenter's overall accomplishments. 2. Introduction of participants. Participant introduction exercises will vary, depending upon the size of the group. Various approaches include: o Asking participants to "stand and rise" based upon their professional affiliation, i.e., victim services, law enforcement, prosecution, courts, corrections, community members (making sure to add "any group I am missing?" to the icebreaker). This allows participants to identify with a smaller group of professionals who share their affiliation, as well as become aware of the diversity and richness of professional experience present at the training. o For larger groups (over 50) and where time allows, dividing the group into teams of ten, and asking them to "process": participants' first names, professional affiliation, and years of victim services' experience (which are added up for the report-out). Then, asking each team to identify "three things they bring to the training program" and "three things they hope to take away from the training program." Each team selects a spokesperson to do a "rapid report out" to the larger group. This allows all participants to be introduced, in effect, to the larger group, as well as the opportunity for members of the smaller groups to get to know some basic information about each other. 3. Overview of the topic or lesson plan. The presenter can offer a brief summary of his/her learning goals and objectives, and indicate "This is where I plan to go today. Would everyone like to go there with me?" This encourages a "statement of learning objectives" from both the presenter and participants. 4. Expectations. This brief exercise can be combined with participant introductions (time permitting), and provides students with an opportunity to describe what they hope to get out of the presentation. The "expectations" process also allows the presenter to clarify which expectations can be met through the presentation, placing others in the "parking lot" for further reference to additional resources. 5. Icebreakers. These individual or group exercises are intended to immediately engage participants. Icebreakers use new insights, humor, or quick, interactive activities to introduce the topics in an interpersonal manner. Examples of icebreakers include: o In a session on victims' rights, participants can be asked to move around the room next to signs that describe the five core victims' rights (notification, participation, protection, restitution, and input) to "the right that they think is most difficult to implement in their jurisdiction." Each of the five groups is then asked to define two-to-three reasons why that right is most difficult to implement, with group responses processed back to the plenary group. o In the beginning of a session on burnout and stress, participants can be provided with a work sheet with two columns: (1) The Three Greatest Stressors in My Personal and Professional Life and (2) Three Positive Ways I Cope With Stress. The "stressors" can be processed out to develop a comprehensive list of stressors common to victim service providers, with the responses about coping utilized later in the session to address stress management. o Utilizing "benefits" and "barriers" worksheets (see Appendix B.3), the presenter can ask participants--as individuals--to identify the benefits of and barriers to (whatever the topic is). They can process their input in small groups, with brief "round robin" reports to the full group. 6. The "hook." It is important to "grab participants' attention" from the very beginning of a presentation, and draw them into the learning process. Examples of hooks include surprising new statistics; descriptions of promising practices that positively change the way business is conducted; or a provocative question that opens up discussion and debate among participants, such as "In your opinion, what is the most significant accomplishment of America's victims' rights discipline?" 7. Main ideas or concepts. These are directly related to the session's lesson plan and/or goals and objectives. Main ideas or concepts should be considered in the context of this question: "What are the key points that I want participants to leave the session with?" They can be presented through a variety of approaches, including the following: o Facts. Verifiable or proven assertions or observations about reality. o Definitions. Explanations of terms. o Testimonials. Opinions or views from a respected authority. o Statistics. Research-based overviews of an idea. o Narratives. Stories that demonstrate the impact of an idea. o Case studies. Actual events to point out the reality of an idea. o Comparisons. Distinctions of ideas in relation to other. o Promising practices. Descriptions of approaches to the delivery of victim services that appear to be, or have been evaluated to be, successful. 8. Participant activities. These include individual, small group, and full group exercises designed to promote subjective thinking and interactive discussions relevant to the main topics. Participant activities can be planned in advance of the presentation (with prepared worksheets and exercise guidelines provided to participants), or created on-the-spot to emphasize a critical issue or point. Clear guidelines on activities and time lines should be provided, either orally or in writing. Examples of participant activities are included in Appendix B, Presentation/Facilitation Exercises and Aids. 9. Action planning. This process, which involves using the information gained from the presentation to plan for positive change in the future, can be brief or extensive, depending upon time constraints and program goals and objectives. At the least, action planning should encourage participants to consider the following: o What are three things I can personally do differently as a result of this presentation? o What are three things my agency can do differently as a result of what I learned from this presentation. Several action planning formats are included in Appendix A, Participant Worksheets. 10. Closing. The process of closing all presentations should also be considered a "genesis"--the beginning of the practical applications of what has been experienced, shared, and learned through the presentation. For example, presenters can offer a challenge to participants, or summarize the presentation with a favorite anecdote or quotation. An essential component of the closing is to thank participants for attending and sharing their insights, and validating that their input contributes to improved presentations in the future for the trainer. (Refer to Chapter 8 for additional information about closing.) 11. Evaluation. Participants should be given time to assess the quality of the presentation and presenter, and to offer their suggestions as to how the presentation can be improved. Evaluations offer presenters helpful guidance to improve their presentation style and content in the future. (Refer to Chapter 8 for additional information about evaluation.) 12. Follow-on. If presenters offer additional resources to participants, it is essential to honor commitments in a timely manner. The use of both e-mail and prepared resource/information packages on frequently-presented topics helps facilitate effective follow-on, and reinforces the learning experience beyond the on-site environment of the presentation. The anatomy of the human body can also be used as a basis for understanding the anatomy of a presentation. Consider the following: o Head. Presenters should be prepared with facts based upon research and practice that hold practical applications for their students. o Neck. "Sticking your neck out" means going the extra mile to engage all students, encouraging and validating their participation, and being flexible enough to meet their specific needs while still covering the major topics included in the lesson plan. o Heart. When presenting victim-related topics, presenters have many opportunities to reach students' hearts. Vignettes and stories based upon both the painful and the positive experiences of crime victims and service providers can build important emotional connections to the subjects at hand. o Hands. A "hands-on" approach to presentation engages and involves students through verbal interactions and individual and group activities, and provides plenty of opportunities for feedback about the topic(s) being presented. o Stomach. "It takes guts" to tackle many of the complicated and challenging issues related to crime and victimization. A good presenter must be prepared to tackle highly emotional issues as well as students' reactions to difficult topics. o Legs. Presenters should offer information and resources that "have legs," i.e., that can be taken from the training venue and applied in practical ways to participants' lives and jobs. Students should also be referred to additional resources where they can continue to enhance their knowledge and capabilities. Communication Skills and Styles There is an endless array of communication styles among presenters, who must find a style that suits their knowledge, personality, and professional experience. There are five "theories" related to the development of strong communication skills: 1. Nobody is born a great communicator. Communication skills reflect a culmination of one's life experiences as well as personal and professional interactions with others. 2. Communication style is unique. Good presenters pick up ideas and tips from other presenters whose styles they admire, but personalize them to their own frame of reference. 3. Communication equates to connection with the topic(s), the audience, and the professions that are affected by the presentation. It is the presenter's most essential tool to develop a bond of mutual trust and respect. 4. The development of good communication skills takes time. It is a journey, not a destination. The road to good communication skills challenges presenters with both fast thoroughfares and roadblocks that contribute to a style that is uniquely theirs. 5. All presenters have strengths and weaknesses. The goal of all presenters should be to build upon their strengths and eliminate or mitigate their weaknesses through commitment and practice. Practice, indeed, makes perfect! COMMUNICATION STRENGTHS Respect for the audience. While a presenter is usually expected to bring a new and different level of expertise to the audience, it is critical to publicly recognize the audience's knowledge and commitment to the topic so as to honor the richness and diversity of its experience. Advance preparation can contribute to this goal: If a presenter knows accomplishments and activities of participants or their communities, this should be validated early on in the process. Validation that "victim assistance is difficult work that takes a special kind of person" is also important. Reflections on the many historical accomplishments of the victims' rights discipline relevant to the training topic(s) are helpful--particularly those related to the jurisdiction in which the training program is being held. And acknowledgment of the contributions of diversity to the disciplines of justice and victim assistance (diversity by gender, culture, geography, age, and political persuasions, among others) serves to validate the importance of differing perspectives and views. Orientation to the physical space. Presenters should make time to "bond" with their physical environment. It is helpful to determine what volume of voice is needed to reach the back of the room; whether there is a table for slides and audio-visual aids; whether the presenter can easily move around among participants; and whether the walls are thick or thin to help avoid interruptions from outside the room. Humility. When a presenter is introduced (often as an "expert" in the presentation topic), it is a good idea to offer background information about how one's success came to be. Examples include: o "My years of service to crime victims would be meaningless without the inspiration and guidance I have received from those whom I seek to help. Their strength as survivors gives me strength to hopefully represent their interests and needs to you here today." o "I have never in my life given a presentation without getting so much in return. You are here to learn from me, yet the lessons I will gain from you will help me so much in the future." o "Isn't it funny how you are never considered an 'expert' until you travel outside of your own community? Each of you here today possesses expertise that can help us all learn together, and I hope you are willing to share your knowledge with me, and with the other participants." Comfort with the topic. The adage "practice makes perfect" directly applies to communication skills and styles. A good presenter reaches a "comfort zone" only when he or she truly knows the topic, and is able to convey it without being glued to notes or slides. "Practice" can be derived from consistent presentations of a topic, or plenty of practice in advance of presenting a new topic. Rhythm. One can consider the rhythm of the ocean as a good guide for "presentation rhythm." The calm and quiet sea can, with enough current, turn into gentle undulations that build into strong and powerful waves. In presentations, there is a time for quiet, a time for building up energy, and a time for unleashing a wave of spirit and enthusiasm. Presentation rhythm must adapt itself to a presenter's individual style, and to the tenor of the audience. Engaging the audience. A presenter can be either a distant icon or an active participant in the learning process. Strong communication skills require extensive interaction with the audience--asking questions, validating responses, physically moving around the participants, and engaging participants in interactive exercises that tap their knowledge and experience. "Eyes wide open." Keeping an eye on participants and their reactions, levels of engagement, and lack of either is a critical tool for presenters. The "body language" of participants can be very telling as to how they are reacting to the material, and it's important to be aware of--and respond to--any nuances or reactions that may ultimately affect the quality of the training program. "Mixing it up." A combination of presentation techniques and styles contributes to successful training programs. There is a time to be serious and a time to be humorous; a time to lecture with a research foundation, and a time to diverge from lecture and use experiential tools such as victims' experience; and a time to stick to a lesson plan, and a time to diverge in order to meet participants' needs. Connecting to the cutting edge. Information that is new and thought provoking always engages an audience. The "Staying on the Cutting Edge" section of this chapter offers a variety of resources that help keep presenters abreast of the latest developments in victim assistance, criminal and juvenile justice, public safety, and allied professional concerns. Being "prepared to punt." The best laid plans can sometimes go awry. A fundamental skill of training is the capacity to be "fluid and flexible," that is, to be prepared to diverge from original training plans and schedule if participants' reactions indicate a need to do so. Participants' needs are much more important than the needs of a trainer to maintain a rigid schedule. COMMUNICATION WEAKNESSES Inflexibility. If there is one weakness in lesson plans, it is their capacity to tie a presenter to a predetermined set of goals and values. Rigidity constricts the learning process. The learning experience should be fluid and flexible to accommodate participants' expectations and needs. "All about me." Perhaps the greatest communication weakness is for a presenter to be too self-focused. The concepts of "me" and "my" should be banished from a presenter's toolbox. The bottom line is: "It's not about the presenter; it's all about the audience." Knowledge without experience. While presentation of research-based information is vital to victim service professionals, it is critical to make the research "come alive" with real-life stories and experiences. If the presenter has none to offer, it is likely that participants do. Thus, it is important to engage participants in discussions to interpret research findings to the reality of crime victims and victim assistance professionals. Lack of preparation. Presenters who are unprepared can fool neither themselves nor their audience. It is better to turn down presentation assignments that cannot be completed with knowledge, enthusiasm, and precision. Lack of rest. When a presenter is tired, it sets a tiring pace for the entire session. A good night's rest preceding the presentation, avoidance of alcohol or too many stimulants such as coffee and cigarettes, a light breakfast, and quiet time planned before the actual presentation all combat this potential pitfall. "Podium clutching." This concept describes presenters who grip the lectern and use it as a shield, while failing to grip the audience. "Podium clutchers" tend to lecture, be rigid, and avoid interaction with the audience. Continual practice as a presenter will remove the physical and emotional barriers that a podium represents, and allow the presenter to be and appear relaxed and comfortable with the topics. Inappropriate emulation. Presenters often know a colleague whose presentation style they admire and wish to emulate. However, each presenter is unique, and his or her style must reflect a distinctive approach that is comfortable. Attempts to replicate somebody else's style and approach to presentation take away from one's personal strengths and characteristics. While imitation is, indeed, the sincerest form of flattery, it can also lead to a presentation style that is neither comfortable nor consistent for a trainer. COMPONENTS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION Typically, there are five core components associated with good communication: Appearance. While presenters cannot easily change the way they look, they can ensure that they always look their best. It is important to determine the ambiance of the presentation venue; presenters should always dress in a manner that reflects the audience's comfort level. For example, keynote speeches usually require business attire. More informal presentations--particularly those that encompass multiple days--allow for business casual attire, i.e., slacks and comfortable shoes. It is essential to coordinate attire with the sponsors of the presentation to fit the tenor of the event. Personal hygiene is essential for all presentations. Clean and pressed clothes, neat hair, brushed teeth (and fresh breath!), and limited physical distractions (such as too much jewelry or change that jingles in one's pockets) all contribute to a positive appearance. Speaking. Six elements affect the style of a presenter's speaking skills: o Voice. It should always be natural and clearly heard by every listener. o Volume. The loudness of one's voice is affected by background noise and proximity to the audience. In order to increase volume, one must breathe correctly. It helps to inhale by expanding the diaphragm, located at the base of the rib cage. Breathing deeply and regulating the release of air from the lungs help modulate the volume of one's voice. The more force one exerts, the louder the voice becomes. Presenters should also request microphones for larger training venues, and test them out prior to the training program. o Articulation. A presenter's "sound production" can make or break a presentation. An unavoidable impediment (such as a lisp or stammer) should be downplayed if possible. Words should be enunciated clearly, especially those with more than two syllables. o Pronunciation. Correctly stressing syllables makes a presenter's words clear and easier to understand. A standard dictionary is an excellent reference for ensuring correct pronunciation of difficult words. o Rate. Inexperienced speakers--or those who are nervous--tend to talk too fast. It's helpful to pause between sentences. Presenters should not fear silence; listeners need time to digest ideas. However, if a presenter speaks too slowly, the participants may become bored. An effective presentation technique is to vary the speed of the words. Stories or information that a presenter is familiar with often come across better when spoken a bit more quickly at a higher volume. Likewise, particularly moving anecdotes can be delivered in a slow and more quiet voice. o Pitch. The height and depth of sounds made in presentations are similar to musical notes. Presenters should try to vary their pitch to animate words and emphasize ideas. For example, the pitch of one's voice can be raised at the end of a question. Monotone speaking voices (all words spoken at the same pitch) tend to bore audiences (Seymour 1987). Listening. The listening skills that are so essential to the success and effectiveness of victim service professionals in working with victims should be incorporated into presentation skills. Just as a presenter hopes his or her audience listens and understands the key concepts being taught, it is very important to return the courtesy of respectful listening to one's students. Because of the often fast pace of presentations, it is helpful to seek confirmation about what participants have said. Summarizing and repeating participants' comments or questions can ensure that the presenter has truly heard the key components of what they are saying or asking. In larger training venues, this approach also helps to ensure that other participants hear and understand the comment or question. Validating. When participants are engaged and they speak up and offer opinions or ask questions, their effort should be rewarded with validation from the speaker. Validation expresses appreciation for the input, and confirms that the input is valuable and appreciated. Some common validation techniques for presenters include: o Responding by using the participant's first name (this is why nametags and name plates are so important). o Using affirming phrases such as: "I appreciate your point of view." "Thanks for bringing up that important point." "That's a really good interpretation of this concept." "You know, I've never thought of that before. Thanks for pointing it out." o "Bouncing off" a participant's input by posing it as a question for the full audience: "Juanita brings up a good point about the need for separate waiting rooms in courthouses. What do the rest of you think about her idea?" o Giving a "fabulous prize" for particularly innovative or humorous input from a participant. Body language. Body language is an important element of presentation. A presenter's nonverbal communication portrays a great deal about him or her to the audience. The following guidelines are helpful in linking body language to positive communication with the participants: o Eye contact. Presenters should always look around the room and include all participants in their periphery. If a presenter is nervous, it helps to look slightly above participants' heads. If there are "friendly faces" in the audience, they should be concentrated on for validation. o Physical gestures. Gestures can be used to emphasize important points. They keep listeners attentive by giving them a visual focal point. Only meaningful, appropriate gestures should be used; otherwise, they become distractions. o Facial expressions. Listeners usually focus on the presenter's face. Facial mannerisms help them understand the meaning behind the presenter's words. A "frozen face" loses the audience's attention. In addition, the presenter's honesty and enthusiasm are conveyed in his or her face. In addition, there are nonverbal and verbal actions that can detrimentally affect one's presentation: o Voice: quiver, monotone, stammer, awkward pauses. o Mouth: swallowing, clearing the throat, "um"; sighing. o Face: twitching, "deadpan expression," rolling eyes, staring. o Arms: rigid, tense, waving, fidgeting. o Body: swaying, pacing, grabbing the podium, flailing the arms, tossing hair, scratching any body part. (The preceding section is excerpted from A. Seymour, Developing a Speakers' Bureau, National Center for Victims of Crime.) Dealing with "Problem Participants" In an ideal world, every participant would be excited to learn, glad to be involved in the learning experience, committed to being a "team player," and eager to please the instructor. However, not all participants fit this description; some students view training as a nightmare from which they hope they will soon awake. Sometimes problem behaviors can be identified early on in the presentation by ultimate presentation skills that: o Establish "ground rules" posted on a tear sheet: everyone should participate; nobody should over-participate; interrupting others is not acceptable behavior; and the instructor is given permission to address what is perceived as disruptive behavior. o Identifying the participants' motivation (or lack thereof) for attending the training program (see "Training Preparation" in this chapter: "vacationers"; "hostages"; and "happy campers.") o Recognize that problem behaviors affect the overall learning process for all participants; be willing to and capable of confronting them. There are typically five types of participants that pose challenges to both the instructor and the learning process: 1. Dominators: Attempt to take control of the learning environment away from the instructor. 2. Hostages: Do not want to be at the training, and make sure that everyone knows this fact. 3. Arguers: Will argue with the presenter and other participants simply for the sake of argument. 4. Distractors: Have difficulty remaining focused on the learning process and, as a result, engage in behavior that distracts from the training program. 5. Class clowns: Take every opportunity to tell jokes and make others laugh, regardless of the serious nature of the topic. The following charts examine the types of "problem behaviors" described above, as well as potential responses from an ultimate presenter. ------------------------ The Dominator o Possible Behaviors --Raises his/her hand in response to every presenter question or probe. --Interrupts other participants. --Knows everything about everything, and wants to make sure everyone in the room knows it. o Possible Responses --"I'll get back to you once others have had a chance to respond." --"Let's give everyone a chance to finish sharing his or her ideas." --At break: "You seem really engaged in this topic. Would you help me process out our next group exercise?" - and/or - --"I want to make sure everyone has a chance to be involved, so you can help me by jotting down your thoughts on the index cards I provided and giving them to me, so I can make sure your issues--as well as others' issues--are addressed. The Hostage o Possible Behaviors --Identifies unwillingness to be present during the introduction/icebreaker. --Sits with arms crossed, and fails to participate in any individual or group exercise. o Possible Responses --"For those of you who were 'ordered' to attend this program, I hope by the end of this session you will feel glad to have attended." --At break: "Your regret at being here is really clear to me. Is there anything I can do to make this experience more enjoyable for you, and for the other participants" - and/or - --"What topics can I address that might be useful to you in your work?" - and/or- --Ignore the participant, and encourage others who bring up that person's "hostage" behavior (at break) to do likewise. The Arguer o Possible Behaviors --Questions every fact and statistic presented. --Argues with other participants' about their input and/or responses. --Mutters to self (or out loud) about how "stupid" or "ridiculous" the training program and/or instructor are. o Possible Responses --Know your facts, and be prepared to back them up with citations and references. --Clarify to the group that "there are clearly different opinions on this subject" and variety is what makes our field interesting. --At break: "I'm sorry you think this training may be a waste of your time. Is there anything I can do to make it more worthwhile?" - and/or - --"Some folks are telling me that your angst makes them uncomfortable. Any ideas on what we can do about that?" - and/or - --"Your outbursts are making me, as well as your fellow participants, uncomfortable. Is there anything I can do to help you resolve your issues, or would you feel better just leaving?" The Distractor o Possible Behaviors --Continually talks to other participants while the instructor--or others--are talking. --Files fingernails or picks at cuticles while yawning and stretching. --Has rude or inappropriate responses to the instructor or other participants. o Possible Responses --"Oh, you look like you have an idea. Is there anything you'd like to share with the group?" --"Boy, can I relate to your yawns . . . I only got five hours sleep last night! Any ideas on how I can rev this training program to keep us both interested?" --"That is not appropriate for us to discuss at this time. Why don't you see me at break. " The Class Clown o Possible Behaviors --Makes a joke about everything. --Is a "smart aleck" in every interaction with the instructor and/or other participants. o Possible Responses --At break: "You're a riot! Can you help me facilitate the next game/learning exercise and infuse some fun into it?" --"There's a time for humor in this program, but it's coming a bit later. Can you hold your responses until then?" - and/or - --At break: "This is a pretty serious topic, and there are some folks who are uncomfortable with humorous interjections. Can you help me start off the next session with a joke or two, and then get back to the topic?" When dealing with "problem participants," an instructor's ability to "punt" will be utilized as never before. It's important to remember that bad behaviors should be addressed--privately with emphasis, or publicly with a light touch of humor-- so that control of the learning environment is not turned over to the problem participant, and that disruptions are limited or eliminated. Training Aids Audio/visual training aids can greatly enhance the presentation process. Essentially, there are eleven training aids that are relevant to presentations about victim- and justice-related issues: 1. Presentation slides. Numerous presentation software packages exist that can enhance a speaker's audio/visual presentation. Presenters can utilize standardized templates or create their own; a wide variety of colors and background adds visual impact to the range of slides one can create. Presenters must be careful to avoid cramming too much information onto presentation slides. In addition, participant pages that correspond with the slides--and include space for participant notes--can easily be generated with most software packages. 2. Tear sheet pads. In using tear sheets, the following points should be remembered: o Make sure there is enough paper before you begin. o Before starting your session, make sure the tear sheet pad stand is stable and that enough working markers are available. o Have several, thick colored markers (thinner markers are difficult to view from a distance). o Never use red ink, except for underlining/emphasis! It is difficult to see at a distance. o Alternate two colored pens on each tear sheet (i.e. green/blue, black/purple.) o When switching topics, also switch the two colors of pens you are using. o Use as few words as possible--always print. o Make your letters two inches high. o Leave two inches between lines. o Utilize the top two-thirds of the pad. o Underscore key points by using lines, stars, underlining, boxes, and color. o Use a pencil to record additional information related to the key points on the tear sheet. You will be able to read them, but they will not be visible to the participants. o Recruit a volunteer to help hang completed sheets on the wall so as to not interrupt the training process. Have pre-cut strips of tape ready to facilitate this. o Tape pages on the wall to reinforce learning. o Better yet, obtain tear sheet pads that have adhesive on them, which simplify the process of hanging individual sheets on the wall. o If tear sheets are prepared and hung prior to the actual exercise or training activity, the information can be "hidden until needed" by taping the bottom of the tear sheet slightly above the top (i.e. flipping it up to conceal the information). 3. Overhead transparencies. For larger groups, tear sheets may not be visible to all participants. A good alternative is clean overhead transparency film that can be filled with information--similar to tear sheets--with transparency markers. 4. Cartoons. Comic pages in newspapers, editorial cartoons, and cartoons from magazines provide endless opportunities for humorous depictions of issues related to victim assistance, public safety, and related topics. Ensure that proper credit is listed for cartoons used and that humor is appropriate to the subject and audience. Cartoons should be blown up to fill an 8« x 11 overhead transparency slide. They can be utilized as training aids and displayed on the overhead projector during breaks. It is always a good idea to bring paper copies of popular cartoons; many students request them for their own use. 5. Quotations. Inspirational quotations can be used judiciously to emphasize key points, as well as to link themes to some of the world's great thinkers. Quotations books are readily available in book stores and on the Internet (by utilizing a search engine with the word "quotations"). Good quotations also abound as a result of presentations; make sure to keep records in a file folder of usable quotations. Good presenters maintain a "tickler" file with their notations of quotations. It is important to always ensure proper attribution for quotations. 6. News articles. News headlines, articles, and photos can provide dramatic visuals for presentations. It is a good idea to enlarge them before copying them onto overhead transparencies. As with quotations, proper attribution is essential. 7. Current research statistics and tables. Many of the data generated by the U.S. Department of Justice--which are available in paper formats from the NCJRS, OVC, and other clearinghouses, as well as electronically via the Internet--provide sound research for presentations, as well as audio/visual aids. The quality of the graphic design in Justice Department publications is excellent, and simply needs to be enlarged for overhead transparencies. 8. Videotapes. There are myriad videotapes that are applicable to presentations for victim services, criminal and juvenile justice, and allied professionals. OVC, for example, has produced excellent videotapes (available free from OVCRC) on "Mental Health Needs of Victims" and "News Media Coverage of Crime". It is a good idea for presenters to maintain a video library, and to request copies of videotapes they have viewed that can be helpful for presentation purposes. The quality of videotapes is key; tapes recorded beyond "third generation" are usually grainy and difficult to view. Ensure the video monitor can read encoded videotapes for closed captioning. 9. Victim-related posters. For the past 15 years, resource materials developed for victim-related commemorative weeks, as well as state and local victim awareness initiatives, have included wonderful posters that depict various themes related to victim sensitivity and victims' rights. Posters can be utilized as visuals on the walls of presentation venues, as well as copied onto overhead transparencies. It is usually a good idea to use a color copier or copy on a lighter mode to ensure clarity. 10. "Victim Vignettes." The "power of the personal story" cannot be overestimated in helping people understand the significance of victims' rights and services. Victims' personal stories, both painful and positive, add tremendous value and emotion to any criminal justice or victim-related presentation. It is essential to secure permission to utilize victims' personal stories for public venues, and protect victims' confidentiality upon request (in cases where they would like their stories to be told without direct attribution). 11. Participant handouts. Any individual handouts for participants can be "color coded" on the paper they are printed on to provide easy accessability. It is crucial that any training resources that are distributed to participants are provided either before the training program, or during the breaks. The "flurry of paper" that would otherwise occur can be very distracting to the learning process. (See Appendix B.1, Presentation "Tools of the Trade," for a comprehensive list of training aids.) "Staying on the Cutting Edge" The tasks associated with effective presentations require that trainers "stay on the cutting edge." Maintaining current files and resources about crime and victimization, victim assistance and victims' rights, criminal and juvenile justice, and public safety is critical to offering audiences the most timely, accurate information available. Some general guidelines for maintaining up-to-date information include: o Avoid using anything over five years old. Unless utilized for comparison purposes, i.e., to demonstrate the decrease in the violent crime rate from 1989 to 1999, it is probably obsolete. o Always attribute the source of material. Plagiarism is a crime. In both written and oral presentations, presenters must always cite sources for the information they are offering to their audiences. o It is helpful to have hanging file folders, into which new resources can be placed with ease. Presenters should review the topics that they are most frequently requested to address, and maintain file folders that mirror these issues. Additional files for quotations, cartoons, and other training aids should also be developed. o While national statistics and data are informative for most audiences, it is helpful to personalize them to the state or local level. National trends are not always replicated locally, and audiences tend to relate better to data that are significant to them, and to their jurisdictions. RESOURCES FOR MAINTAINING THE CUTTING EDGE Justice Department Clearinghouses. Within the Office of Justice Programs, the National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS) offers information and resources on a variety of topics including crime, drugs, delinquency and victimization through six clearinghouses: o National Institute of Justice: (800) 851-3420 o Office for Victims of Crime: (800) 627-6872 o Office of Juvenile Justice Delinquency and Prevention: (800) 638-8736 o Bureau of Justice Statistics: (800) 732-3277 o Bureau of Justice Assistance: (800) 688-4252 o Office of National Drug Control Policy: (800) 666-3332 The many resources available through the clearinghouses are beneficial to presenters who seek to keep current on key topics. In addition, registering with NCJRS provides an excellent resource for trainers who seek additional information about topics related to crime and victimization. Readers can sign up for material to be automatically sent based on various categories of interest. World Wide Web. The power and scope of the Internet have many positive implications for presenters. Data and resources that a decade ago would have taken weeks or months to secure are readily available in electronic formats 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Many victim-related Web sites are hyper- linked to other similar sites to facilitate rapid access to related information. Knowledge of how to use search engines simplifies research on the Web. In addition, Web surfers should always try to affirm the veracity of information derived from the Internet and provide proper attribution for resources that are utilized for presentations. A comprehensive list of victim- and justice-related Web sites appears in the National Crime Victims' Rights Week Resource Guide, published and updated by VALOR with support from OVC, and is included in Appendix G.2. Electronic list-servs. This increasingly popular mode of electronically sharing current information about crime and victimization--as well as generating action on key public policy issues--offers timely (and often daily) updates on important topics. Most list-serves offer free membership, which can be accessed by providing one's name and e-mail address at Web sites that sponsor list-serves. Toll-free telephone numbers. The roster of approximately 20 national toll-free information and referral numbers relevant to crime and victimization is updated annually each year in the National Crime Victims' Rights Week Resource Guide, and can be a useful tool in maintaining the cutting edge because they link victim service providers and justice professionals to vital resources available at both the national level and in communities across the country. (See Appendix G.1.) Journals. A substantial body of research relevant to crime and victimization is published regularly in journals. While more of this information is becoming available in electronic format through the Internet, many journals are published for subscribers only. However, some journals are available free from libraries and can be requested through inter-library loans. Books. Thousands of titles have been published in the area of crime and victimization. They are available at many book stores, on-line via the Internet, and at book sales sponsored at conferences. Agency newsletters. There are nearly 200 national newsletters that address current cutting edge issues of crime and victimization, available in both paper and electronic formats. In addition, state and local victim assistance and criminal/juvenile justice newsletters often highlight current data and trends that are jurisdiction-specific. The news media. Timely information about crime and victimization (research findings, government statistics, coverage of actual cases, etc.) can be found in both print and electronic media. Most news media also sponsor Web sites that facilitate easy electronic access. Conferences. Excellent resources are available from seminars and workshops at conferences. A good technique is to visit workshop rooms during conference breaks to pick up resource materials that were presented. In addition, many conferences sponsor resource tables or arenas where good information is available free to conference participants. STANDARDIZING PARTICIPANT RESOURCES A good presenter should seek to "plant seeds" in participants that can be cultivated to grow and flourish beyond the presentation venue. In the field of victim services, such resources focus on being able to obtain continuing education for personal and professional growth as well as being able to offer information and referrals to crime victims. Presenters should collaborate with allied professionals to develop current and cutting edge resources that can be utilized for participant resources. When a great reference document is discovered, it should be shared with others. For example, an informal network of justice and victim assistance professionals regularly share current information and referral resources that are retained in a permanent resource file and utilized for participant handouts. Standardized participant resources can include copies of slides of key presentations (three to a page with lines for participants to take notes) that are directly related to, or an adjunct to, the key topics addressed by the presenter. In addition, there are excellent resources for providing information and referrals for crime victims, service providers, criminal and juvenile justice professionals, and allied professionals. Many are included in each year's National Crime Victims' Rights Week Resource Guide. These include: o The roster of toll-free information and referral numbers for victim information and referrals. o A list of Web sites relevant to victim assistance and criminal/juvenile justice, including federal and state agencies and nonprofit organizations. o U.S. Department of Justice National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS) registration form (which includes registration for the Office for Victims of Crime Resource Center). o "Resources on Crime and Victimization" available free from the NCJRS (which includes ordering numbers). o National Victim Assistance and Criminal/Juvenile Justice Organizations (which includes addresses, telephone and fax numbers, e-mail addresses, and Web site addresses). o Annual "Crime Victims' Rights and Crime Prevention Commemorative Calendar." o List of INFOLINK Bulletins available free from the National Center for Victims of Crime (800-FYI-CALL). Participant resource packages should include a cover page with the title and date of the presentation, as well as a "table of contents" with page numbers for easy reference by presenters during the training session. References Knowles, M. S. 1980. The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy. New York: Cambridge University Press. Seymour, A. 1987. Developing a Speakers' Bureau. Fort Worth, TX: National Center for Victim of Crime. ---------------------------- Chapter 7. Ultimate Lesson Development and Design Introduction The development of lesson plans is closely linked to preparing for a presentation. The more a trainer knows about his or her audience--including their individual and collective experiences and expectations--the easier it is to develop a lesson plan to meet their needs. In some cases (such as the National Victim Assistance Academy), lesson plans must also correspond with a written text. It is essential to identify the most important information a presenter should offer, based upon the topic, amount of time allotted for the presentation, and his or her knowledge of the audience. Lesson plans are designed to give structure to the training or learning environment. They serve as an overall guide to accomplish the presenter's training goals and objectives, yet should be flexible enough to also accommodate students' expectations and needs. The development of lesson plans serves two important goals: 1. To help the instructor or facilitator prepare, plan and present information in a manner that is organized and interesting. 2. To help students learn in a structured environment that understands and respects their experiences, and guides them toward learning goals and objectives that impart new knowledge and skills. In developing lesson plans, the instructor: o Identifies the focal points for developing the training strategy. o Creates a framework for the instructional resources that must be developed. o Provides the foundation to evaluate what participants have learned. o Establishes criteria for self-assessment to measure the effectiveness of both the instructor, as well as the instructional process. o Creates a learning process and environment that are structured and consistent. While lesson plans offer an important framework for instruction, they should not be carved in stone. When utilized as a tool for training in the field of victim services, lesson plans cannot be rigid, and must adapt to specific training challenges. The following list describes essential considerations that a trainer should keep in mind when developing lesson plans: o The expectations of the students. For what purpose(s) are they attending the training program? o Potential trauma reactions to the content of the lesson. Some crime-related topics can produce trauma reactions in victims, and secondary trauma reactions in service providers. Instructors should address the issue of potential "trauma triggers" at the beginning of each learning session to help students understand possible reactions they may have, and offer a pathway for validation and assistance. o Current events directly related to the topic(s) included in the lesson plan. In particular, when a high profile crime occurs in conjunction with a training program, flexibility in structured lesson plans is necessary. For example, a trainer was addressing victim sensitivity and victim trauma issues with 50 probation officers as the mass tragedy at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado, was unfolding. On the second day of the training program, the trainer provided the students with a lengthy opportunity to discuss the horrific crime and related it back to the lesson plan topic of victim trauma. The participant evaluations reflected considerable gratitude for this flexibility. Background Information While lesson plans are often structured to reflect specific curricula or resource materials, they should also be designed, whenever possible, to address: o Type of audience. --How many participants will there be? --What are the range and levels of professional and volunteer experiences among the training participants? --What degree of diversity is there among the participants? --Do participants work together in any capacity? o Knowledge base of audience. --Does the audience have any knowledge about the subjects for which they will receive training? If so, what is the general level of knowledge? --Is there a "learning curve" among audience participants? (This can work to the presenter's advantage, allowing him/her to utilize the knowledge and experiences of more advanced students to facilitate the learning experience.) o Expectations of audience and sponsors. --As a result of the training experience, what do the participants and training sponsors hope to gain? (Note: The expectations and goals of the training sponsors should be determined and incorporated well in advance of developing the lesson plan.) --Can these expectations be matched to the learning goals and objectives in the lesson plan? o Duration. --Lesson plans should be structured within specific time frames. Often, the objectives and content of the plan directly relate to the length of time allotted for the training program. --In the discipline of victim services, it is helpful to develop lesson plans for a topic that can be taught in different time segments. Typically, these might include: ----30 minute speech presentation. ----90-120 minute workshop. ----Half-day session (3« to 4 hours). ----Full day session (6« to 7 hours). ----Multiday sessions. o Understanding the exact duration of a training session helps the presenter to predetermine the most important information that can be provided within the time frame allotted. Lesson plans can be tailored either to condense and highlight information or to expand into the content and learning activities in a more detailed fashion. Materials Required The "List of Training Aids" included in Chapter 6 offers an overall summary of resources that can enhance the training process. In addition, the "Instructional Activities" (see below) further define materials that are needed to facilitate a positive learning environment. In developing a list of materials required, it is helpful to determine in advance of the training session exactly who is responsible for providing them. For example, the training sponsor can assume responsibility for audio/visual equipment, while the trainer should develop and provide materials relevant to instructional activities. The presenter should inform the program coordinator about any on- site needs he/she has. Learning Goals and Objectives In developing lesson plans, learning goals and objectives keep the instructor focused, and augment the cohesive structure of the learning environment. Goals are "macro statements" about the reality an instructor is trying to create. Goals take a while to get to. They are long term, e.g., teaching participants techniques for becoming more effective adult trainers. Finally, goals need to be realistic and specific (Marshall Developing Goals 1999). A learning objective is a "micro statement" that provides a detailed and measurable description of what learners will be able to do after they have participated in a training session. Objectives should not focus on what learners do during the training process but, rather, what the expected outcomes are of that training process. It is important to remember that the more objectives one seeks to accomplish, the less time the instructor can spend on providing information and resources relevant to the successful completion of each objective. In other words, a lesson plan should limit the number of objectives to fit the duration of the session, experience of participants, and desired outcomes of the training sponsor and participants. Objectives should be designed to help the instructor or trainer assess the participants' levels of knowledge and skills. They should be concise, clear, action-oriented, and measurable: o A good way to begin the development of an objective is as follows: "As a result of this learning experience, the student(s) will be able to . . ." o Statements of objectives that follow the opening statement cited above should be no longer than one sentence. o Statements of objectives should always begin with an active (as opposed to passive) verb. For example, "As a result of this learning experience, the student(s) will be able to (1) describe the five core rights for victims of crime and (2) cite an example of one law that implements a core victim's right in this jurisdiction." o Statements such as "gain knowledge," "understand (certain things)," and "expand levels of expertise" are not valuable objectives, as they are vague and unmeasurable. Once the first draft of objectives has been developed, it can be placed in context of the lesson plan by determining: o Can these objectives be adequately accomplished in the time allotted? o What guidance from the instructor (or from other participants) will the participants need to accomplish each objective? o Are there specific resources that the participants will need--or be able to reference--to perform tasks related to each objective? o Will the objectives require follow-on training, technical assistance, or other resources to ensure that they are accomplished? The answers to the four simple questions above offer guidance to instructors that may result in revising the original objectives. Finally, criteria for measuring successful completion of objectives should be developed. To achieve learning objectives, the presenter must develop and design specific instructional activities that are tailored to the experience level and needs of the participants. Instructional Activities In general, there are four types of instructional activities that can be incorporated into lesson plans: 1. Preassigned individual activities. Participant activities assigned in advance of a training program offer an immediate and personalized linkage to the session. The participant must think in advance about the topic(s) to be addressed and, as such, think about his or her expectations of the training experience. For example, in a session about victims' rights laws, students could be asked to bring an example of a specific victims' rights law in their state, and be prepared to briefly discuss the impact (if any) that it has had on victims' rights and services. Preassigned activities can also be fun assignments to incorporate into training icebreakers. For example, at many of the sites for the National Victim Assistance Academy, students are asked to bring and wear a hat the represents their agency, community, or state, with prizes awarded for the most creative hats. This small but significant activity creates an immediate bond among participants. 2. On-site individual activities. In order to avoid "group think"--where students' ideas and opinions are formed by the collective group, rather than by each student--individual activities provide each participant with the opportunity to consider and possibly express his or her individual opinion. Such learning activities can be facilitated through the use of individual worksheets or specific assignments. In addition, individual activities can be further processed in small groups or a plenary session. In training environments that incorporate focused group discussions, individual activities and worksheets serve the additional purpose of providing a record of individual students' perspectives. When written records are a component of a training session, these worksheets can provide important information that may not otherwise be processed through small or plenary group activities. 3. Small group activities. The individual experiences and attitudes of each participant can contribute to excellent small group activities that determine "common ground," as well as differing perspectives among participants. Small group activities should be designed to be structured and highly interactive, and to have a clearly stated expectation and outcome. Such activities can be further processed in the full group. For example, in order to help criminal and juvenile justice officials understand the importance of victim impact statements, an instructor can create a case scenario of an offense involving both adult and juvenile offenders. After reading the scenario, students work in small groups to complete a victim impact statement, based upon their unique perspectives. The content of the small groups' victim impact statements are then processed (read to the full group) by the instructor, who points out the wide variations in individuals' reactions to traumatic events and specific needs that aid victims in reconstructing their lives in the aftermath of a crime. 4. Full group (plenary learning environment). The traditional lecture or presentation of structured curricula is conducted in a plenary format. Audio/visual aids are helpful to structure the full group learning environment. In addition, it can be interspersed with individual and small group activities that, as noted above, can be processed by the plenary group. Evaluation/Assessment Based upon their effectiveness in a training environment, lesson plans should be reviewed and revised, as needed. The instructor or presenter can rely upon participant evaluations for their assessment of the structure of the lesson. In addition, answers to the following questions can combine with participant evaluations to further evaluate the effectiveness of the lesson plan: o Is the scope and content of the lesson plan clear and appropriate for the intended audience? o Are the goals and objectives clearly stated in both the lesson plan, and the actual training session? o Can the lesson plan accommodate flexibility, dependent upon students' expectations and needs? o Does the lesson proceed in an organized fashion? o Are the activities appropriate for the time frame allotted for the lesson? o Are the lesson's content and learning activities delineated clearly enough that another trainer could follow the plan? o Does the body of the lesson detail a time plan? o Have transitions been clearly identified and are they appropriate? Do transitions occur smoothly during the presentation? o Are the individual differences among potential students/audiences considered in the lesson activities? o Is an effective closure (ending to the lesson) planned? o Is time allotted for an adequate closure at the end of the presentation? o Do the lesson activities clearly lead to the attainment of the lesson goals and objectives? o Is the lesson appropriate and engaging for the stated audience (Keeler 1998)? Putting It Together: Lesson Plan Principles and Preparation The Department of Education Technology at San Diego State University offers the following guide to preparing lesson plans, based upon the "events of instruction" developed by Robert Mills Gagne, co-author of Conditions of Learning Training Application, published in 1995 (Marshall Guide 1999): ------------------------ Lesson Plan Principles Principle o Motivation --Designed to: Get and keep the learner's attention. --Examples of: Novelty, arouse uncertainty, cite model, establish relevance, raise confidence, establish reward, establish credibility. o Objectives --Designed to: Focus the learner's attention. --Examples of: State formal objectives, state informal objectives . o Prerequisites --Designed to: Link prior knowledge or experience. --Examples of: Cite previous learning, use analogy. o Information presentation --Designed to: Convey information. --Examples of: Provide overview, provide background, give definition, examples, demonstration, rhetorical questioning, discussion, analogy, summary. o Practice and feedback --Designed to: Let learners try out their new knowledge. --Examples of: Drill, individual practices, guided practice, group feedback, peer feedback, delayed feedback, role play, vicarious practice, simulation. o Testing --Designed to: Find out how well the learners are doing. --Examples of: Student self-test, pretest, posttest. o Others --Designed to: Complete the learning process. --Examples of: Remediation, enrichment, administration, social, break, rearrange classroom. ------------------------ Follow-up Activities A range of follow-up activities can be incorporated into the structure of a lesson plan. However, there are some unexpected activities that may result from the unique perspectives of the students, and how they contribute to the overall learning environment. Examples of follow-up activities can include the following: o Providing students with information about how to obtain additional resources relevant to the training topic (such as pertinent Web sites, toll-free information centers, etc.). o Closing the training session with an individual exercise/worksheet that encourages students to consider "what I can do differently" and "what my agency can do differently" to assist victims of crime, as a result of what students learned from the training session. o Providing students with a brief summary report of the training proceedings, with emphasis on action items developed by the participants. o Providing students with stamped postcards on which they can write their name and mailing address on one side, and their "three main objectives" in utilizing the information they learned at the training program in their work or lives. The instructor can mail the postcards six to eight weeks following the training program. o Inviting students to contact the instructor(s) by telephone, e-mail, or fax if they have any questions, or need further information. Follow-up activities provide important, ongoing linkages to the training session, as well as continuity to guide participants along the route from "student" to "practitioner." References Keeler, C. updated 6 August 1998. "Secondary Social Studies Methods Taught by Christy Keeler." Christy Keeler Home Page. . Marshall, J. 20 September 1999. Guide to Preparing Lesson Plans. San Diego State University, CA: . Marshall, J. 7 October 1999. Developing Goals and Objectives. San Diego State University, CA: . ---------------------------- Chapter 8. Ultimate Closing and Evaluation Introduction The closing of the training session probably garners the least attention of any component of the training process. Closing activities are routinely minimized or eliminated in the interest of time; instructors hustle to finish the session, and participants streak out of the room! Brief, well-structured closing activities can have a powerful impact on the participants as they complete the training experience and again when they return to their respective agencies. Closing activities provide closure to instruction, tie up loose ends, summarize the highlights of training, challenge participants to practically apply what they have learned, suggest appropriate follow-up, and make transitions. Evaluation of the training experience is unfortunately often viewed as a "bothersome" task that takes place at the end of a session. Evaluation of the trainer, learning, and environment is most often a "have-to," rushed task dreaded by participants and trainers alike! Evaluation, like other closing activities, is a valuable component to the training session for both the participant and trainer. Ultimate educators use closing and evaluation activities to enhance or summarize learning, measure results, improve performance for trainers and participants, and aid in the transfer of learning to the workplace and personal life. The following sections explore topics of closing sessions and workshops and evaluation. Ending an Individual Session The critical components of ending individual sessions are reviewing and summarizing. Klatt (1999) lists seven steps for ending a session: 1. Acknowledge the existence of any "loose ends" or unfinished business. Tell the group when and how "loose ends" will be addressed. 2. Discuss the "whereas" and the "therefore." The "whereas" looks back and is a brief summary of what has occurred thus far. The "therefore" looks forward and involves planning how, when, and under what circumstances new learning will be used. 3. Provide a brief overview of what is coming in the next session and suggest "why" the group will find this valuable. 4. Review assignments for the next session (if any). 5. Recognize the group's efforts and successes thus far. 6. Gather formal or informal feedback. 7. Based on participant feedback, contract with the group for adjustments in workshop outcomes, process, content, or style. Here are a few "session ending" activities that can assist you in effectively ending individual workshop sessions: o "Stringy" ball review. A stringy-type, soft rubber ball can be found in most toy stores. During this activity, the trainer asks participants to state something they learned in the session. The trainer tosses out the ball to a participant; the participant responds to the question and then tosses the ball to another person. The trainer summarizes the feedback and makes closing statements. o Index card review. At the end of a session, pass out 3 x 5 index cards. Ask participants to respond to specific questions concerning session content and/or training process. Three to five minutes at the end of the session are usually sufficient for this activity. Collect the cards and use the information to plan for the next session. o Klatt's (1999) One Minute Feedback and End of Session Feedback forms. Print questions on 3 x 5 cards for use as session evaluations. ------------------------ Feedback Forms One Minute Feedback So far, I am finding this workshop to be (circle your response) . . . o Interesting 1 2 3 4 5 Uninteresting o Too fast 1 2 3 4 5 Too slow o Too easy 1 2 3 4 5 Too difficult o Relevant 1 2 3 4 5 Irrelevant o Organized 1 2 3 4 5 Disorganized o Relaxed 1 2 3 4 5 Tense Please provide a brief comment for improving this workshop: ------------------------ End of Session Feedback o I was most energized today when . . . o I was least interested today when . . . o Suggestions for improving this workshop . . . ------------------------ Ending the Workshop One of the most difficult segments of an effective training workshop is bringing effective closure. It is a time to recap the highlights of what happened, reinforce learning, and encourage the participants to take action. The end of a workshop needs to not only bring a necessary sense of completion but also signal the commencement of a time when participants will begin to apply the learnings to real life. This valuable component is frequently glossed over due to lack of time; yet participants need time to reflect on what they have learned, celebrate each other (the group can become a support system), and plan how they will turn the learning into action. Pike (1989) states that closing allows for affirmation and celebration, allows action planning, and ties things together. CLOSURE Closure activities fall into seven categories: 1. Looking back and planning ahead: Probably the most traditional closing activities, these summarize the content, review expectations, and provide an opportunity for action planning. 2. Sharing positive feedback: Participants focus on each other and provide feedback. 3. Fabulous prizes: Fun ways to celebrate the participants. 4. Coming home: Preparation for re-entry back at the home-front. 5. Staying in touch: Mechanisms to help participants stay in contact after the session. 6. Saying goodbye: Methods to say goodbye nonverbally or via closing ceremonies. 7. Following up: Activities to provide participants with additional ideas and reinforce what was learned in the session. Looking back and planning ahead. The most common method is a verbal review by the instructor during which expectations, objectives, and process are summarized. If this method is used, it is critical for the instructor to "revisit" opening participant expectations and session objectives, and clearly identify what was or was not accomplished during the training program. A simple tear-sheet exercise can quickly summarize the workshop. Put up two tear-sheets with the headings "What's hot?" and "What's not?" Ask participants to think about the overall workshop (including expectations, objectives, environment, trainer, and participants) and respond to the questions verbally. This exercise provides a quick review of the session although it does not look ahead. Other exercises: o Letter to the boss. Pass out paper and envelopes. Ask participants to compose a letter to their boss. Include in the letter the most important skills, concepts, or issues they have learned; specific behavior or skills they plan to implement upon returning to work; additional training they feel they need to do their job better; and an expression of appreciation for time off to attend the workshop. Ask volunteers to share highlights of their letters. Variation: write to spouse, friend, parent, or child. o Personal learning goals. This exercise can be used if participants were asked to identify personal learning goals at the beginning of the workshop or prior to coming. At the end of the workshop, arrange the participants in a circle and ask them to tell the group what their goals were; how successful they were in reaching their goals (on a scale of one to five); reasons they did or did not reach their goals; and whether or not they were satisfied with the goals they set for themselves and why (or why not). o I learned and I plan to . . . Prepare a card or handout with the following unfinished statements: "I learned that I . . ."; "I re-learned that I . . ."; "I discovered that I . . ."; "I noticed that I . . ."; "I was surprised that I . . ."; "I am disappointed that I . . ."; and "I plan to . . ." Ask participants to complete these statements. Ask some of them to share their statements; if there are more than 20 participants, this activity could be completed in small groups. Sharing positive feedback. Allow participants an opportunity to share positive feedback about each other and the instructor. Tossing around the soft/stringy ball is one method to accomplish this important task; here are some others: o Full plate. Pass paper plates out to participants along with a strip of masking tape. Ask each participant to take a pencil or pen. Have participants assist each other in attaching the paper plates to each other's backs. People circulate and write positive affirmations, observations, or feedback about each person on his or her plate. o Brown bagging it. Sometime during the workshop, give participants a small paper lunch bag. Have participants personalize their bag. Ask participants to write notes to each other and place them in the bags. Participants cannot read the contents of their bags until they are going home or are at home. Variation: use paper cups. Fabulous prizes. Fabulous prizes are a fun method to energize, reward, and celebrate participants. Throughout the workshop and especially at closing, cheap fun prizes can be "awarded" to participants for accomplishments, witty sayings, winning contests, etc. Prizes at the closing of a session can be used to honor exceptional contributions to the training experience. Coming home. When people have been away from their respective agencies for two or more days, they might need assistance in re-entry. You may want to spend a few moments talking about how they are going to share what they have learned with colleagues and friends back home. Staying in touch. When participants leave a training experience, it is often to return to a "business as usual" routine. Staying-in-touch activities remind them of the training experience and can serve to re-energize and motivate. Here are a couple of examples: o Name exchange. Prepare copies of an information sheet with headings for name, address, e-mail, and phone and fax numbers. Include space for three additional statements: "Remember me as/for . . ." (participants write down what they would like to be remembered for); "I need . . ." (write down some resource or area that needs resolving); and, "I can give . . ." (remind other participants of resources you can provide). o Paper airplanes. The instructor discusses the importance of staying in touch. Pass out colored construction paper to participants; ask them to write their name, address, and phone number in the center of the paper; participants build paper airplanes under the guidance of a volunteer instructor; when finished, they simultaneously toss the planes in the air. Participants pick up an airplane and are instructed to telephone, e-mail, or write the person named on their plane within ninety days, discussing how they have incorporated ideas/skills learned in the training at their workplace. Saying goodbye. Even if not in a formal way, make sure participants have sufficient time to say their good-byes to the instructor and fellow participants. It is helpful if, following a training session, the instructor(s) open the exit doors and stand there as participants leave, shaking their hands and offering words of both thanks and encouragement. Following up. Following up activities reinforce what was learned in the workshop and renew determination to reach set goals. Formal follow-up surveys are discussed in the following evaluation section. Here is a sample exercise: o Letter or postcard to self. Have participants address an envelope or postcard to themselves; ask them to write about the changes they want to make as a result of what they have learned. They should also include their most important goal. Have them put the letter in the envelope and seal it. The instructor collects the letters and mails them to participants 30 days after the program ends. Evaluation Evaluation tools are used to measure current results and to improve future results. While formal written instruments are often viewed by instructors and participants alike as a nuisance, if properly developed and implemented, they can be invaluable. Training expert Robert W. Pike (1989) writes that evaluation is not: o Data for data's sake. Do not collect information just to have it. o Punitive. Evaluation is done to measure and improve the effectiveness of training, not to reward those who achieve and punish those who do not. o Egocentric. Evaluation is not done to massage anyone's ego. o Smile sheets. Whether or not people liked the program is a very small part of evaluation. o One time. Trainers must continually measure the effectiveness of what they do. o Complex. Effective evaluation does not have to be complex. o The realm of scientists and statisticians. Evaluation is meant to be a tool to improve results over time, not a full employment strategy for those with a Ph.D. in math or statistics. Additionally, Pike states that besides being a process that helps measure the effectiveness of training, evaluation should be a number of other things as well: o Exciting. It helps you see in a concrete way that what you are doing is making a difference. o Rewarding. It allows participants and other stakeholders to see that the training they have attended has made a positive difference to themselves and the workplace. o On-going. The environment that trainers work in is ever shifting and changing. Evaluation is an ongoing way to insure that the training being delivered is in touch with current needs and reality. o A way of assigning accountability for the learning. If evaluations measure not only what participants have learned and the skills they can demonstrate, but also the environment within which they apply these things on the job and the support systems that enable them to use the training, then trainers have total accountability for learning and application. o A change tool. Training is one method of helping people retool to meet changing challenges and opportunities. o Part of the organization's "Early Warning System." It develops awareness of shifts that can affect the organization. Sandra Merwin (1992) provides the following definition of evaluation: Evaluation is the means used to determine the worth or value of the training. Effective evaluations can reveal: o If learning took place. o Participants' entry level. o If the training objectives were met. o If the facilities met participants' needs. o If the facilities met the instructor's needs. o If the trainer fulfilled his or her job requirements. o How participants plan to use information. o Training effectiveness. o Areas that need improvement in the training. o Future training needs for participants. There are several methods you can use to measure your training impact including pre- and post-tests, participant/trainer evaluations, self-evaluations, work statements, and follow-up evaluations. In Appendix C, Sample Evaluation Forms, are examples of the following types of evaluations that you may wish to use in your training sessions. o Post-workshop evaluation. At the end of a training session, participants are thinking about "getting on the road" and heading home. Because most participants are thinking about leaving the session on time, it is important to have a well-prepared post-workshop evaluation. From the instructor's perspective, the evaluation needs to provide the data necessary to improve future training. A successful post-workshop evaluation form needs to satisfy both the participant and trainer by being brief and able to be completed quickly as well as gathering many types of information (Merwin 1992). (See Appendix C.1, Sample Participant Evaluation Form.) o Post-workshop instructor evaluation. The evaluation by the session leader asks the trainer to assess workshop elements: the participants, the trainer, the content, and the environment. A complete evaluation system would include trainer assessments in the evaluation package. (See Appendix C.2, Sample Evaluation by Trainer.) o Follow-up survey. Follow-up surveys given to participants several months after the workshop provide information on what was valuable for on-the-job application, what did/did not work when participants applied learning, and what they suggest for future training sessions. (See Appendices C.3, Follow-up Evaluation and C.4, Training Follow-up Survey for two samples.) For longer sessions (one day or more), it is helpful to include written instructions with the participant evaluations of logistics and sessions. A sample evaluation package is included in Appendix C.5, Participant Evaluation. Regardless of the type of evaluation used, it is helpful to offer "incentives" to participants for turning in evaluation forms, which are often ignored or lost. A simple technique is to have a "double roll" of raffle tickets; when evaluation are turned in, the participant receives a ticket. After the session (or the next morning, for multi-day sessions), the presenter draws from the raffle tickets for a "fabulous prize" to the winner. This technique has been known to result in 100 percent participation in daily evaluations! Additionally, in training programs that involve more than one instructor/facilitator, it is helpful to conduct a brief evaluation of the session from the leaders' perspective. The "alpha-delta" faculty debriefing process is highlighted in Chapter 2. Ultimate Educators Close Workshops with Style and Class and Gather the Information Necessary to Provide Even Better Training in the Future! This chapter discussed the importance of effective closing of both individual sessions and the entire workshop. Effective closing activities and formal evaluations provide ultimate educators with the data to improve performance in the future. How will you close your next session? Be creative, make it memorable! References Klatt, B. 1999. The Ultimate Training Workshop Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill. Merwin, S. 1992. Evaluation: 10 Significant Ways for Measuring & Improving Training Impact. MN: Resources for Organizations Incorporated. Pike, R. W. 1989. Creative Training Techniques Workbook. MN: Resources for Organizations. In S. Merwin, Evaluation: 10 Significant Ways for Measuring & Improving Training Impact, MN: Resources for Organizations Incorporated, 1992.