Community Policing and D.A.R.E.: A Practitioner's Perspective. MENU TITLE: Community Policing and D.A.R.E.: A Practitioner's Perspective Series: BJA Published: June 1995 19 pages 38,716 bytes Community Policing and D.A.R.E.: A Practitioner's Perspective BJA Bulletin Community Policing Series David L. Carter, Michigan State University American citizens are concerned about crime. A review of public opinion polls and news stories shows that Americans want to see new initiatives for dealing with drug abuse, gang activities, violence in the schools and streets, nonviolent crime, and the fear that is eroding the quality of life in many communities. A number of programs have emerged to deal with these problems. Neighborhood Watch, Operation Identification, use of school educational resource officers (ERO's), street sweeps, and a wide range of specialized programs all target local problems throughout the United States. This bulletin focuses on two of these evolving initiatives: community policing and Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.). The way citizens think about policing is being transformed. Integration of the creative thinking of law enforcement administrators and academics with a wide body of police research findings has yielded the concept of community policing. Unlike programs intended to address specific problems faced by law enforcement, community policing calls for an all-encompassing change in the way police perform their duties. D.A.R.E. is a drug and violence prevention education program that began in Los Angeles in 1983 and has since spread across the country, through urban and rural communities. D.A.R.E. program goals and activities are consistent with an integrated community policing approach and reflect many community policing values. The 1991 report of the Christopher Commission, an independent group studying the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD), offers this description of the D.A.R.E. program: In 1983 [the LAPD, in partnership with the Los Angeles Unified School District] developed a highly visible, community-oriented program, D.A.R.E. . . . in which officers leave patrol and go to schools to teach children about the dangers of drug use. Many view the D.A.R.E. Program as one of [LAPD's] major achievements . . .1 Both community policing and D.A.R.E. have had their critics; challenging old methods and philosophy can be risky. However, such creative initiatives are essential to meet the growing citizen demand for change, resource accountability, and a quality of life that is as free of crime as possible. Community Policing The emergence of community policing presents a challenge for law enforcement because it requires a fundamental shift in the longstanding philosophy underlying the maintenance of law and order. Many envision community policing as one specific program; others generalize it as "social work" that is "soft on crime." In reality, the concept is one of full-service law enforcement that addresses specific citizen concerns and provides high-quality police efforts. Robert Trojanowicz, one of the earliest proponents of community policing, characterized it as: . . . a new philosophy of policing, based on the concept that police officers and private citizens working together in creative ways can help solve contemporary community problems related to crime, fear of crime, social and physical disorder, and neighborhood decay. The philosophy is predicated on the belief that achieving these goals requires that police departments develop a new relationship with the law-abiding people in the community, allowing them a greater voice in setting local priorities, and involving them in efforts to improve the overall quality of life in their neighborhoods. It shifts the focus of police work from handling random calls to solving problems.2 Community policing did not suddenly materialize as a new idea; rather, it evolved from research conducted by a wide range of scholars and police research organizations. Beginning primarily in the early 1970's, a great deal of research was conducted on police patrol. Some of the important patrol-related data from the last 25 years of research include the following findings: o Random, marked patrol does not prevent crime. o Patrol officers have a notable amount of "uncommitted" time. o Quick response to citizen calls does not increase the probability of apprehending criminals. o Fulfillment of citizen expectations of a response time--not the actual speed of response--shapes citizen satisfaction with the police. o Call management plans, such as Differential Police Response, can increase the efficiency and effectiveness of policing without sacrificing citizen safety. o Assigning patrol officers to geographic locations based on population ratios does not meet the variability of demands for police service. o Meaningful deployment of patrol officers requires careful analysis of environmental factors, thus calling for service that can fluctuate according to season, time of day, and geographic location. o Because most citizen calls can be handled effectively by one officer, single-officer patrol cars are significantly more efficient than two-officer units. o One-officer patrol cars do not pose undue threats to officer safety. o Teams of police officers working in a cooperative effort toward commonly defined goals can provide more comprehensive police service than nonteam efforts. o Unique patrol deployment schemes, or specialized patrols, can be useful in handling special circumstances and problems. o Patrol officer job enlargement and job enrichment helps increase job satisfaction, thus fostering an environment in which officers become more productive. o To be useful in personnel assessment and direction, police performance measures must be goal directed and reliable. o Citizen demands for police assistance and problem solving related to noncriminal matters must be addressed.3 ------------------------------ Labels for Community Policing Initiatives Municipality Program Aurora, CO Police Area Representative Aurora, IL Resident Officer Baltimore County, MD Citizen-Oriented Police Experiment Detriot, MI Ministation Flint,MI Neighborhood Foot Patrol Ft. Worth, TX Code Blue Houston, TX Neighborhood-Oriented Policing Jackson, TN Community-Oriented Policing Kansas City, MO Target-Oriented Policing Madison, WI Quality Policing Newport News, VA Problem-Oriented Policing ------------------------------ Community policing builds on lessons learned from the above research findings and related literature. By reallocating patrol officers' time, community policing can make better use of personnel. When police establish a dialog with citizens, the public develops a more accurate measure by which to gauge an officer's competence and thus determine their satisfaction with police services. Participating in a dialog with police also allows citizens to have a voice in defining and prioritizing their law enforcement needs. This targeted response, in turn, helps establish better police-community relations and contributes to greater satisfaction for all citizens. At the same time, officers given the mandate to diagnose community problems and develop creative solutions serve in many new roles--as community organizers, facilitators, educators, and referral resources--that enrich and expand the officers' work. Community policing is not the answer to all problems faced by law enforcement, nor will it work in every community. However, the concept provides a logical, comprehensive approach to police service delivery that relies on a tested body of research. Integrated with D.A.R.E., a more specialized program that has been shown to produce desirable results, community policing can presumably better serve all citizens. Although debate continues on the conceptual differences between community policing and problem-oriented policing, many argue that the concepts are moving closer together. Community policing seeks to resolve community disorder and neighborhood decay with a broad brush of solutions; problem-oriented policing seeks a more precise surgical approach to resolving specific problems. In practice, police departments appear to employ community policing in the way that best meets their particular local concerns, giving the effort a special name to signify a new initiative. These names can vary widely; however, it is the philosophical shift behind the police service delivery system--not the difference in the name-- that is important. A good example of a problem-solving/community- oriented systems approach to drug use and crime prevention is the three-phase systems approach developed by the Bureau of Justice Assistance, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice, in New Haven, Connecticut; Jacksonville, Florida; Knoxville, Tennessee; and Tucson, Arizona. o Phase 1 involved an integrated effort to ensure that prevention was afforded a stature equivalent to other policing activities. Rather than being handled as a separate activity, prevention was included in patrol and investigation activities throughout entire police departments.4 o Phase 2 was designed to create partnerships between the police and different community groups and institutions. It was recognized that comprehensive prevention activities could not be performed effectively without enlisting the help of such key constituency groups as schools, churches, neighborhood organizations, and departments of municipal government. o Phase 3 involved the coordinated delivery of drug use and crime prevention services. Essentially, to achieve their drug and crime prevention goals, the partnership groups needed to develop a comprehensive initiative characterized by cooperation and coordination of the different responsibilities. Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.) Drug Abuse Resistance Education is a comprehensive educational program designed to prevent substance abuse and violence by educating children about the threats and consequences associated with such activities. The D.A.R.E. curriculum focuses on building self-esteem, taking responsibility for one's behavior, resisting peer pressure, and making responsible decisions. As important additional benefits, the program offers students the opportunity to gain a trustworthy adult friend, develop a positive attitude toward law enforcement personnel, and acquire greater respect for the law.5 The D.A.R.E. curriculum was developed by educators to be presented to school children by specially trained, uniformed police officers. Since its implementation, the core curriculum has undergone continuous review and improvement, incorporating contemporary teaching methods to educate children in the prevention of drug abuse, violence involvement, and gang affiliation. Building on the original D.A.R.E. concept of 1983, the curriculum has expanded to cover the entire span of a child's school years. D.A.R.E. programs include: o Kindergarten through fourth-grade visitation lessons. o Fifth-grade and sixth-grade core curriculum. o Middle/junior high curriculum. o Senior high curriculum. o D.A.R.E.+ P.L.U.S. (Play and Learn Under Supervision) activities for sixth-graders, seventh-graders, and eighth-graders. o Lessons for parents. Socialization An important dynamic in any educational initiative is the socialization process, or the way in which attitudes, values, and beliefs are shaped by everything a person observes and experiences throughout a lifetime. Political beliefs, understanding of right and wrong, life priorities, and virtually every other aspect of human experience are shaped by socialization. D.A.R.E. attempts to influence the socialization process in young people's lives. Informal socialization results from a myriad of incidental exposures occurring throughout a person's life. For example, a child is riding in a car that is stopped for speeding. The officer's demeanor--whether pleasant and professional or abrupt and overbearing--will undoubtedly influence that child's attitude toward police. At the same time, the youth will be influenced by the driver's reaction to the officer. This brief experience will serve as a factor in the development of the child's attitude toward law enforcement personnel. Although the single encounter may have a limited effect on the child's value system, it nonetheless is a "planted seed." Subsequent encounters with a police officer will either reinforce this experience or provide conflicting information that the youth must weigh accordingly. Other factors also will color that judgment, including comments made by family, friends, and teachers; observations from television and movies; and innumerable other societal inputs. Formal socialization occurs when specific information is directed toward an individual with the intent of shap-ing his or her values and beliefs. School, church, the business sector, and the court system, in addition to teaching substantive skills, all focus on influencing behavior and beliefs. Ironically, informal socialization appears to be somewhat more influential than formal socialization; nevertheless, there is a clear interaction between the two types. Specifically, formal socialization establishes institutional parameters and policies, while informal socialization guides the actual practice of policies and "pushes"--sometimes crossing--the institutional parameters. Simply stated, the predominant type of input, or socialization, that is regularly experienced will exert the greatest influence on a child's attitudes and beliefs. Constant positive exposure to a police officer over a sustained period of time can shape a positive attitude toward the community, its values, and the police; consequently, D.A.R.E. can help develop good citizenship in the students who participate. How much any young person will be influenced depends on his or her previous socialization experiences; the quality of the D.A.R.E. instruction experience; and how much reinforcement is received from parents, friends, teachers, or other police officers. D.A.R.E. opens the door to young people to lay the foundation of responsible citizenship. Through the use of community policing initiatives, law enforcement can build on this foundation. Behavioral Continuum Some young people will never use drugs or seriously entertain the idea of participating in an unlawful act. Others may be headed toward involvement in crime. The causes of these behavioral extremes have been studied by criminologists for years. What is known is that young people are the product of a complex interaction of physical and psychosocial factors that can be influenced by positive and negative forms of socialization toward either extreme. A substantial portion of young people seem to fall in the middle area of the continuum between the extremes, with vulnerability to influences that can edge them closer to one end or the other. Perhaps positive interaction with the police as a result of both community policing and D.A.R.E. can more effectively socialize young people in the middle of the continuum, encouraging them forward toward greater responsibility. A successful D.A.R.E. program requires the integrated effort of police, schools, and parents. One of these groups alone is unlikely to succeed in directing a child's behavior toward a constructive, responsible end; furthermore, law enforcement probably has the least influence of the three. However, through programs like D.A.R.E., law enforcement officers can reinforce the positive efforts of the parents and schools. Such reinforcement is enhanced when the police department is "driven" by the partnership and problem-based orientation of community policing. Community Policing and D.A.R.E.: Working Together Combining a community policing mission with an educational initiative like D.A.R.E. can prove beneficial. The following account offers a good example. Mission, Texas, a city of about 30,000 people and just minutes from the Mexican border, has an extremely high level of drug trafficking activity and drug abuse. Recognizing the need to employ a more contemporary and effective approach to law enforcement, Chief Pat Dalagar of the Mission Police Department refocused his department's drug control strategy. By significantly shifting resources, the police department was able to place 13 officers in the city's two school districts. As Chief Dalagar stated, "The police department has taken away the `big stick approach' [to dealing with youth-related crime] and replaced it with education."6 In the fourth and fifth grades, the officers teach the D.A.R.E. curriculum; in the middle schools, the officers teach the Gang Resistance Education and Training (GREAT) curriculum; and each of the two high schools has the services of an assigned ERO. According to the chief, this approach's reliance on the more open (and trusting) communications has resulted in fewer "police problems," an increased number of arrests, and significantly improved police-community relations. D.A.R.E. establishes effective communications links within the community with potentially far-reaching results. Special Agent Merle Manzi of the Florida Department of Law Enforcement, who also is the State's D.A.R.E. Program Coordinator, has observed: Speaking to D.A.R.E. officers makes you aware of the program's impact. Every officer can quickly give you several stories [that] describe how students more positively relate to the police or how their lives have changed after having the opportunity to know a police officer whom they feel comfortable talking with [about] all kinds of problems. D.A.R.E. has opened that line of communication. Multiply that by the number of D.A.R.E. officers across the country and I'm convinced that they have had an important lasting impact on the community.7 In looking at the specific relationship between D.A.R.E. and community policing, the annual report of the Michigan D.A.R.E. Coordinator stated, "[The D.A.R.E. program] is more than drug education; [it] is community policing and commitment to community."8 Along this same line of thought, Moore and Trojanowicz noted: In community policing, community institutions such as families, schools, neighborhood associations, and merchant groups are seen as key partners to the police in the creation of safe, secure communities. The success of the police depends not only on the development of their own skills and capabilities, but also on the creation of competent communities. Community policing acknowledges that police alone cannot succeed in achieving their basic goals without both the operational assistance and political support of the community. Conversely, the community cannot succeed in constructing decent, open, and orderly communities without a professional and responsive police force.9 Sgt. Rick A. McLaughlin, the Kansas City, Missouri, Police Department D.A.R.E. Supervisor, relates that the D.A.R.E. program serves as a vehicle for activities in Kansas City that reach beyond the in-school curriculum. Several new programs that specifically emerged from activities of D.A.R.E. officers are described below: o The new community-based Park Hill School District Community Drug-Free Task Force resulted from the interest and concern of parents, the police, and schools. o Drug-free tailgate parties were sponsored at various high school football games. o An adult "prom" was sponsored as a fundraising event for drug abuse programs and community awareness of drugs and the drug-related problems that affect youth. o D.A.R.E. officers and students developed a docudrama on drug resistance that was presented to students during high school prom week. o Through the leadership of D.A.R.E. officers, a chapter of Turning Resources and Energy in New Directions (TREND) was developed in two middle schools and one high school. o D.A.R.E. officers helped develop a Teaching and Reaching Youth (TRY) program. These initiatives were facilitated by the stimulus and networking afforded by the D.A.R.E. program, and each complements the goals of community policing. It has become increasingly evident that D.A.R.E. provides important linkages to the community that were previously weak or nonexistent. The anecdotal experiences of D.A.R.E. participants highlight several patterns involved in the use of D.A.R.E. that serve to complement a community policing component. o D.A.R.E. "humanizes" the police: that is, young people can begin to relate to officers as people, rather than in terms of uniforms or parts of an institution. A D.A.R.E. officer in Massachusetts asserted, "I have had countless kids tell me that they never thought they would speak to a cop. It shows you that they viewed us [the police] as robots or some untouchable force. If I hadn't had these kids in class, most would probably still view us that way."10 o D.A.R.E. permits students to see police officers in a helping role, not just in an enforcement role. A Georgia D.A.R.E. officer was told by a fifth-grade student, "I didn't know you did good things. I thought you just put people in jail." Showing all sides of policing responsibilities is an important educational tool. o D.A.R.E. opens lines of communication between law enforcement and youth. In Michigan, an officer said, "When I worked patrol, I rarely said over a half a dozen words to kids, and they certainly had little to say to me. Now [after working in D.A.R.E.] I talk to kids all the time--even ones who graduated from the program several years ago-- and it's amazing some of the things they tell me." o D.A.R.E. serves as a source of feedback to the police department to better communicate the fears and concerns of youth, thus helping the police develop problem-solving efforts that extend beyond drugs. A D.A.R.E. officer from a rural Missouri town said, "I was surprised to learn how scared many of these kids were about different types of crime. They would hear about gangs and homicides occurring in Kansas City and were convinced that was a problem [here] also. I can't ever remember a homicide [in our town] and I would be surprised if we ever had a gang member pass through here. So, I found myself explaining things to kids about all kinds of crime in addition to drug resistance." o D.A.R.E. officers can serve as conduits to provide information to young people beyond drug-related matters, particularly in question-and-answer sessions. A Florida officer stated, "I get questions about traffic laws, search and seizure, the accuracy of TV police shows, crimes in the news, local gossip about crimes and criminals, the Mafia--just about anything you can think of. There's certainly lots of misconceptions in these kids' minds. Hopefully, I'm straightening some of them out." o D.A.R.E. can serve as a stimulus for youth to become more involved in other responsible activities such as the Police Explorers, Police Athletic League, or other youth-oriented initiatives. A Texas police manager observed, "D.A.R.E. gets many young people enthused about the police, which leads to their interest in about anything we're involved with. The more young people we can get to participate in positive, character-building activities, the better citizens they will be. Over the years, D.A.R.E. will probably plant the seed for many of these young people to enter a law enforcement career." o D.A.R.E. reduces peer pressure and balances values for all types of responsible behavior. An officer from Florida observed, "Most kids want to do what is right, but the peer pressure to conform is unbelievably strong. What they learn in D.A.R.E. discussion sessions is that there are lots of other kids who share their values to do `what's right.' That lesson goes far beyond drug resistance and gets to the heart of being a good citizen." o D.A.R.E. opens lines of communication between the school district and police to deal with a wide range of issues, such as violence in the schools, drug abuse, and any other problem about which there is mutual concern. One Texas school district did not want the police to come on campus unless they were specifically called, and then only under limited circumstances. Furthermore, the police department had difficulty obtaining cooperation from the school except under extraordinary circumstances. The Chief of Police said that after the D.A.R.E. program started, their relationship with the school system completely turned around. Not only did the D.A.R.E. officer serve as an important "common ground," but the school officials developed a greater understanding of police procedures and needs--just as the police department learned more about the school district's concerns. o D.A.R.E. shows the police in a different light for many adults within the community: parents, teachers, school staff, administrators, and school board members. According to a Michigan parent, "At first I wasn't too sure that having a cop teaching kids in school was a good idea. I thought they'd try to turn the kids into informants or something. But after talking with my daughter about [the D.A.R.E. instruction] and listening to her enthusiasm and talking with [the officer] at her graduation, it changed my mind. It has good lessons about personal responsibility which should be continued in the schools and at home." o Exposure to life in the public schools can broaden officers' perspectives on, and understanding of, community concerns. An officer in South Carolina said his experience as a D.A.R.E. officer gave him a greater appreciation for problems faced by schoolteachers and how these problems impede the educational process. He stated, "This [experience] has not only helped me in my job, but it has made me a better parent and citizen." o D.A.R.E. training is an instrument of socialization that introduces officers to a philosophy that measures success by community acceptance and support rather than by the numbers of crimes and arrests. A California police captain observed that officers returning from D.A.R.E. training exhibit "a definite change in character. . . . The officers demonstrate greater sensitivity to the needs of people in the community, and an eagerness to interact with the community and teach what they have learned. Such changes in police attitudes provide a firm foundation upon which police-community partnerships can be established." o By using D.A.R.E. officers as a resource, a department can become more creative in developing problem-solving initiatives. A California police manager stated, "We've found D.A.R.E. officers to be an excellent source to help identify community problems which need to be solved because they learn so much in the schools. They're also a good resource for viewing new programs from a slightly different light because they seem to understand many things about our community that many of us have lost touch with." ------------------------------ D.A.R.E. Regional Training Centers Law enforcement agencies interested in obtaining D.A.R.E. training or seeking answers to questions about local programs may contact the appropriate D.A.R.E. Regional Training Center listed below. BJA discretionary funds support the training centers. o West D.A.R.E. Regional Training Center City of Los Angeles Police Department 3353 San Fernando Road Los Angeles, CA 90065 213-485-4856 West D.A.R.E. serves California, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, North Dakota, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. o Southwest D.A.R.E. Regional Training Center Arizona Department of Public Safety Suite 290 3110 North 19th Avenue Phoenix, AZ 85015 602-223-2544 Southwest D.A.R.E. serves Alaska, Arizona, American Samoa, Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, and Texas. o Midwest D.A.R.E. Regional Training Center Illinois State Police Academy D.A.R.E. Bureau 3700 East Lakeshore Drive Springfield, IL 62707 217-786-7026 Midwest D.A.R.E. serves Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Ohio, Virgin Islands, and Wisconsin. o East D.A.R.E. Regional Training Center Virginia State Police P.O. Box 27472 Richmond, VA 23261 804-674-2238 East D.A.R.E. serves Connecticut, Delaware, District of Columbia, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Puerto Rico, Rhode Island, Vermont, Virginia, and West Virginia. o Southeast D.A.R.E. Regional Training Center North Carolina State Bureau of nvestigation P.O. Box 29500 Raleigh, NC 27626-0500 919-662-4500 Southeast D.A.R.E. serves Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee. ------------------------------ The D.A.R.E. program fosters the close and prolonged contact with the community that is fundamental to community policing. Removing the D.A.R.E. officer from the patrol car allows him or her to interact closely with school administrators, teachers, parents, community members, and young people over an extended period of time, thus developing a rapport that promotes communication and problem solving on issues that extend beyond the D.A.R.E. curriculum. The connection among D.A.R.E. officers, community policing officers, and citizens becomes very strong. A police supervisor in Massachusetts stated, "Every student and parent views `their' D.A.R.E. officer as being `the best one,' [in] much the same way people view `their' community police officer as being the best officer on the department." Such public perceptions are crucial to gaining support and developing partnerships for crime control and drug prevention. Given the benefits that can be gained from these linkages, law enforcement should strive to expand any available avenue of communications and cooperation. Conclusion Community policing and D.A.R.E. are evolving initiatives that can respond to changing social problems and demands. However, many of the challenges faced by both programs arise out of the fundamentals of human nature. Among the greatest barriers to overcome are: o The resistance to change that affects law enforcement and communities alike. o The desire to see successes in the short term when change requires a long-term goal of resocialization. o The natural human tendency to settle for the status quo rather than risk change. o The unwillingness to recognize that even in failure, knowledge is gained--knowledge that includes insight on how to modify an initiative to ultimately achieve success. o The lack of sincere commitment to invest effort, resources, and patience in a nontraditional venture. Special Agent Manzi of Florida stated, "D.A.R.E. is like building a brick building, one brick at a time. It's incremental and you have to look at the collective successes over time."11 The same might be said for community policing. Kelling and Moore observed that "[t]he measures of success in the community strategy are broad: quality of life in neighborhoods, problem solution, reduction of fear, increased order, citizen satisfaction with police services, as well as crime control."12 The effects of D.A.R.E. appear to contribute to all of these outcomes. Thus, although D.A.R.E. primarily focuses on drug use and violence prevention and education, its influence potentially can be far more widespread. As noted in a report by the office of Michigan Governor John Engler: D.A.R.E. is one of the few prevention programs that excite students, teachers, parents, and communities. That excitement and awareness should be expanded to include other diverse prevention and intervention approaches. In Michigan, D.A.R.E. officers are encouraged to become aware of all school and community prevention initiatives and to encourage participation in broad-based parenting, peer, student to student, student assistance, and community awareness projects. D.A.R.E. can provide a powerful building block and source of support for all prevention activity.13 In philosophy and practice, D.A.R.E. complements the tenets of a community-based approach to policing. Together, building on the ideas of partnership, open communication, reciprocal education, and mutual respect, community policing and D.A.R.E. can improve the quality of life in the Nation's communities. Notes. 1. Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department (Christopher Commission). Commission Report. Los Angeles: LAPD, 1991, p. 102. 2. Trojanowicz, R., and B. Bucqueroux. Community Policing. Cincinnati: Anderson Publishing Company. 1990, p. 5. 3. Radelet, L., and D.L. Carter. The Police and the Community. 5th ed. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. 1994, p. 74. 4. Bureau of Justice Assistance. The Systems Approach to Crime and Drug Prevention: A Path to Community Policing. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. 5. Bureau of Justice Assistance. An Introduction to the National DARE Parent Program. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. 1993, p. 1. 1993, p. 2. 6. This quote is based on personal interviews conducted by the author. 7. Florida Department of Law Enforcement. The Future of Forida D.A.R.E. Tallahassee: Office of the Statewide D.A.R.E. Coordinator. Undated. 8. Michigan Statewide D.A.R.E. Office. Statewide Report--1994. East Lansing: Michigan Department of State Police. 1994, p. 4. 9. Moore, M.H., and R. Trojanowicz. "Corporate Strategies for Policing." Perspectives in Policing. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice. 1988, p. 3. 10. All of the quotes related to the anecdotal experiences in this section are based on personal interviews conducted by the author. 11. This quote is based on personal interviews conducted by the author. 12. Kelling, G., and M.H. Moore. "The Evolving Strategy of Policing." Perspectives in Policing. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice. 1988, p. 13. 13. Engler, J. Answering the Critics. Memorandum to Michigan D.A.R.E. Officers. Lansing: Office of the Governor. November 16, 1994, p. 11. Suggested Reading Bureau of Justice Assistance. An Introduction to D.A.R.E.: Drug Abuse Resistance Education. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. 1991. ------. An Invitation to Project D.A.R.E. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. 1988. ------. Neighborhood-Oriented Policing in Rural Communities. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. 1994. ------. Problem-Oriented Drug Enforcement. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. 1993. ------. Understanding Community Policing: A Framework for Action. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. 1994. Goldstein, H. The New Policing: Confronting Complexity. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice. 1993. Kelling, G.L., and W.J. Bratton. "Implementing Community Policing: The Administrative Problem." Perspectives on Policing. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice. July 1993. National Institute of Justice. Community Policing for Safe Neighborhoods. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. 1993. ------. Community Policing in Seattle: A Model Partnership Between Citizens and Police. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. 1992. ------. "The D.A.R.E. Program: A Review of Prevalence, User Satisfaction, and Effectiveness." National Institute of Justice Update. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs. October 1994. New York Police Department. Taking Hold: A Progress Report on the Crime Control Strategies of the NYPD. Internal report. 1994. Trojanowicz, R., and D.L. Carter. The Philosophy and Role of Community Policing. East Lansing: Michigan State University, National Center for Community Policing. 1988. Wycoff, M.A., and T.N. Oettmeier. Evaluating Patrol Officer Performance Under Community Policing: The Houston Experience. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice. 1994. Wycoff, M.A., and W.K. Skogan. Community Policing in Madison: Quality From the Inside Out--An Evaluation of Implementation and Impact. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice. 1993. Sources for Further Information D.A.R.E. America P.O. Box 2090 Los Angeles, CA 90051-0090 800-223-3273 Bureau of Justice Assistance Clearinghouse P.O. Box 6000 Rockville, MD 20849-6000 800-688-4252 U.S. Department of Justice Response Center 800-421-6770 ------------------------------ This document was made possible in part through D.A.R.E. America and supported by cooperative agreement number 94-DD-CX-K008, awarded by the Bureau of Justice Assistance, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this document are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice. The Bureau of Justice Assistance is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the National Institute of Justice, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Victims of Crime. ------------------------------ NCJ 154275