Labeling theory focuses on the manner in which society defines and creates deviance. Labeling theory has become a popular sociological approach to the study of deviance, but it has also received criticism for its inability to explain primary deviance, its lack of attention to the labeling of categories of people, and its failure to specify the conditions under which official labeling works. Differences in how labeling theory operates in simple and complex societies has also received little attention. In addition, ethnographic descriptions for deviance in non-Western societies and cross-cultural studies of deviance are rare. However, some research exists in this area. Studies have focused on hunters and gatherers, swidden-based and tribal societies, and peasant cultures. Extensive research has focused on industrial societies, including small-scale social units that exist within these nations. Differences in the labeling processes of simple versus complex societies reflect differences in such characteristics as the relative equality among members, the consistency of values, the interdependence of members, and the toleration of minor deviance. The interdependence that characterizes social relations among members of small-scale units inhibits the labeling of individuals as deviants. In contrast, in large-scale units, the absence of good interpersonal information and bonds of interdependence plus the presence of conflicting values and inequalities all promote the abrupt labeling of an offender as a deviant. 64 references.