Consciously or unconsciously, the criminal is goal-directed, and this psychological mindset applies not only to hardened career criminals, but also to otherwise law-abiding citizens who do not want to be arrested. In contrast, the police officer is so ingrained with being defensive that he or she often has trouble changing the mindset to winning at all costs on the street. Various writers have attempted to deal with the psychology of winning and survival, and some interesting discoveries have been made concerning goal-directed behavior in training courses. For example, defensive tactics lead to goal-oriented action when taught through adaptation of principles and concepts rather than through memorization. Students must be taught and shown that their mind is the key element in survival and that individuals can go beyond their normal capabilities simply by willing themselves to do so. Psychological techniques that have proven to be effective aids in teaching police officers how to psychologically prepare themselves include positive self-talk while training, self-hypnosis, playing "what if" games, and creating physical and mental challenges.