Geller and Scott (1992) explain the continuum of force as "a spectrum of control tactics from body language and oral communication to weaponless physical control to nonlethal and lethal measures." If a probation or parole officer must resort to force, an agency continuum of force that is well-designed will provide the officer the necessary guidance and assist both the officer and the agency if a lawsuit results from the use of force. Beginning in 1991, the Federal Probation and pretrial Services System incorporated a continuum of force model in training at its firearms instructors schools. Since 1993 the use- of-force model has been incorporated in a two-day officer safety seminar conducted by the Federal Judicial Center for all Federal probation and pretrial services officers. The force model begins with the officer's presence and then escalates to verbal commands, Cap-Stun (the personal defense spray approved for use by officers in the system), empty-hand control, and lethal force. A 25-item bibliography