The earliest types of societies were small-scale stateless societies. Offenses and conflicts in these societies were dealt with informally. In early 19-century England, public order was a serious issue for elites. As a result, two important changes in policing occurred. The police were centralized and they became proactive rather than reactive. American colonists brought their ideas about policing with them from England. Early colonists policed themselves through the “brotherly-watch,” which meant that communities were responsible for monitoring the behavior of their residents. However, high levels of public surveillance made the need for police patrols unnecessary. After American gained independence from British rule, citizens were still not in favor of a formal police force. With the advent of labor unions, the fear of civil disorder precipitated the emergence of professional police. New York created the first organized and trained police force in 1845. Tremendous changes in policing occurred between 1845 and 1915: police uniforms were created; more training and experience were provided; technological advances were employed; and police forces were enlarged, organized, and bureaucratized. By 1900, the police were considered semiautonomous from the capitalist class. Departments were often corrupt and ineffective. Police reform brought about police professionalism that severed police from any community influence and through the promotion of new technologies aimed at making social control more effective. By the start of the 1960's the country was undergoing massive political protests that threatened the economic order. As a result, “law and order” became an integral part of the political agenda. However, the military model of the 1960's came under harsh criticism in the 1970's and there was a call for police to develop closer ties to the communities that they policed. Today, police violence occurs frequently in cities such as Los Angeles and New York. As long as some members of society are marginalized, exploited, and oppressed, police violence will remain an inevitable part of policing. 68 references