Examination of the literature supports the suggestion that illicit drug use alone does not directly cause violent or aggressive offending. However, psychopharmacological violence studies that effectively documented correlations established temporal and proximal order, and controlled for alternative explanations for violent offending or victimization are very infrequent. It seems premature to conclude that illicit substance use does not directly impact violent offending and/or violent victimization in any context or among any subgroups. It is suggested that there are developmental stages of behavior that include biological susceptibilities, behavioral responses, school difficulties, and eventually maladaptive behaviors including violent acting out and drug use and abuse. The framework emphasizes the importance of precursors, exacerbaters, and childhood and adult disorders as facilitators of increased risk for co-morbid drug abuse and violence. Also emphasized is the importance of considering biological and genetic causes and their interactions with environmental stimuli. Past evidence from alcohol studies suggests that many of these same variables might also be important to studies of illicit psychopharmacological violence. References