IN THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY, TWO DISTINCT CONCEPTS OF INCARCERATION WERE INTRODUCED IN NEW YORK AND PENNSYLVANIA, BOTH ENCOMPASSING THE GOAL OF REFORM. IN PENNSYLVANIA, THE KEY TO REFORM WAS THOUGHT TO BE TOTAL ISOLATION. PRISONERS WERE LED BLINDFOLDED TO AND FROM THEIR SOLITARY CELLS. IN NEW YORK, REFORM WAS TO BE ACCOMPLISHED BY COMPELLING PRISONERS TO WORK TOGETHER IN HARMONY. WHEN AUBURN PRISON OPENED IN 1819, PRISONERS WERE STILL ISOLATED FROM THE OUTSIDE WORLD, BUT THEY WORKED AND DINED TOGETHER, ALBEIT IN SILENCE. FOR ECONOMIC REASONS, MOST AMERICAN PRISONS CAME TO BE PATTERNED AFTER AUBURN. IN THESE CONGREGATE PRISONS, DISCIPLINE WAS REGARDED AS THE KEY TO SUCCESS, AND SILENCE WAS THE PRIMARY RULE UNDERLYING DISCIPLINE. WHEN SWELLING PRISON POPULATIONS AT AUBURN AND LATER AT SING SING THREATENED THE SILENCE PROGRAM AND THE INDIVIDUAL CELL POLICY OF THE NEW YORK SYSTEM, NEW CELLBLOCKS WERE ADDED AND CLINTON PRISON WAS BUILT. THE ESCALATING PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTING EVER MORE SECURE, ESCAPE-PROOF PRISONS REACHED ITS PINNACLE IN 1931 WITH THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE PRISON AT ATTICA, WHICH WAS BUILD IN RESPONSE TO A WAVE OF PRISON RIOTS IN THE LATE 1920'S. IN THE 130 YEARS THAT PASSED BETWEEN THE OPENING OF AUBURN AND THE OPENING OF ATTICA, THE ENTIRE SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF THE NATION HAD BEEN ALTERED, NEW LAWS AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS HAD AFFECTED THE VERY NATURE OF CRIME, AND THEORIES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR HAD BEEN RADICALLY MODIFIED. YET PRISONS STILL WERE BEING BUILT IN THE SILENT CONGREGATE STYLE OF AUBURN. IN 1971, THE HEART OF NEW YORK'S CORRECTIONAL SYSTEM REMAINS THE MAXIMUM-SECURITY PRISON, WHERE FIRST OFFENDERS ARE MINGLED WITH CAREER CRIMINALS, YOUNG MEN WITH OLD MEN, AND PROPERTY OFFENDERS WITH VIOLENT OFFENDERS. ALTHOUGH EFFORTS HAVE BEEN MADE TO MAKE THE SYSTEM REHABILITATIVE RATHER THAN PURELY CUSTODIAL, SUCH REFORMS HAVE BEEN LARGELY STRUCTURAL AND HAVE HAD LITTLE IMPACT ON IMATES.